MODULE-5 (Q.

B)

1. Discuss why single phase induction motor does not have a starting torque but if given an initial
rotation in either direction the motor will develop a torque.

Single phase induction motor has distributed stator winding and a squirrel-cage rotor. When fed from
a single-phase supply, its stator winding produces a flux which is alternating in nature but not a
synchronously rotating flux as in the case of a three phase induction motor. Now, alternating or
pulsating flux acting on a stationary squirrel-cage rotor cannot produce rotation (only a revolving
flux can produce rotation). That is why a single phase motor is not self-starting.

However, if the rotor of such a machine is given an initial start by hand (or small motor) in either
direction, then immediately a torque arises and the motor accelerates to its final speed.
This peculiar behavior of the motor can be explained with the help of Double-field revolving
theory. It states that an alternating sinusoidal flux can be represented by two revolving fluxes,
each equal to half the magnitude of alternating flux and each rotating synchronously in
opposite directions.

Each of these two fluxes while revolving round the stator cuts the rotor, induces emf, and thus
produces its own torque. Obviously, the two torques(called forward and backward torques) are
oppositely-directed so that the resultant torque is equal to their difference. Hence, Tf and Tb are
numerically equal but being oppositely directed, produce no resultant torque. That explains why
there is no starting torque in a single-phase motor.
However, if the rotor is started somehow, say, in the clockwise direction, the clockwise torque starts
increasing and, at the same time, the anticlockwise torque starts decreasing. Hence, there is a certain
amount of net torque in the clockwise direction which accelerates the motor to full speed.

2. Discuss the methods used to make a single phase induction motor self-starting.

Single phase induction motors are not self starting because a single phase supply cannot produce a
rotating magnetic field. But we can create a rotating magnetic field by a two phase construction. So
simply we can say in order make a single phase induction motor self starting, we have to temporarily
convert it into a two phase motor during its starting period.

For this purpose, stator of the single phase induction motor is provided with an extra winding known
as Starting or Auxillary Winding in addition to the Main or Running Winding. The two winding are
 90 degree electrically displaced and are connected in parallel across the single phase supply. It is so
arranged that the phase difference between the currents in two stator windings ( main and running
windings ) is very large ( ideal value is 90 degree ). Hence the motor behaves like a two phase motor.
These two currents produce a revolving flux hence makes the motor self starting. Once motor gathers
speed, say upto 80 or 90% of its normal speed, the starting winding gets disconnected form the
circuit by means of a centrifugal switch, and the motor runs only on main winding. The torque
developed is proportional to : T α Im IA sinφ

The phase difference between the currents in main winding and starting winding can be
obtained through different methods such as by connecting a resistance, inductance or capacitance in
series with the starting winding.

Eg: Split Phase induction motor, Capacitor induction motor, shaded pole induction motor

3. Explain the various types of single phase induction motors.

a. Split phase induction motor.

b. Capacitor start IM.
c. Capacitor run IM
d. Capacitor start - Capacitor run induction motor (two value capacitor method).
e. Shaded pole induction motor.

a) Split Phase Induction Motor : Here in addition to the main winding, the stator carries another
winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series with
auxiliary winding. The purpose of this switch is to disconnect the auxiliary winding from the main
circuit when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed.
In order to create the phase difference between the two windings the starting winding is made highly
resistive whereas the main winding is made highly inductive. Therefore Starting winding has thin
conductors with less no. of turns whereas running winding consists of thick conductors with large no.
of turns. The torque developed is proportional to : T α Im IA sinα
Applications

Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. So these motors are used in
fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machine, grinder, lathes, air conditioning fans, etc

b) Capacitor Start IM:

In case of split phase induction motor we use resistance for creating phase difference but here we use
capacitor for this purpose. Here a capacitor is connected in the starting winding so the current flowing in the
capacitor i.e Ist leads the applied voltage by some angle, φst. Since the running winding is inductive in
nature, current flowing in running winding lags behind applied voltage by an angle, φ m

Now there occur large phase angle differences between these two currents and since the torque produced by
these motors depends upon the phase angle difference, which is almost 90 o. So, these motors produce very
high starting torque.

In case of capacitor start induction motor, the centrifugal switch is provided so as to disconnect the starting
winding when the motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in case of capacitors
run induction motor there is no centrifugal switch so, the capacitor remains in the circuit and helps to
improve the power factor during the running conditions of single phase induction motor.

Applications : Since these motors have high starting torque hence they are used in conveyors, grinder, air
conditioners, compressor.

c) Capacitor start - Capacitor run induction motor (two value capacitor method)

This motor has a start type capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding like the capacitor start motor for
high starting torque. Like a Capacitor run motor, it also has a run type capacitor that is in series with the
auxiliary winding after the start capacitor is switched out of the circuit. This allows high overload torque.
Application : This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher efficiency. It is
able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of single-phase motor. These include
woodworking machinery, air compressors, high-pressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque
applications

d) Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction Motors

The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or projected poles. These poles are
shaded by copper band or rings which is highly inductive in nature. The poles are divided into two unequal
halves. The smaller portion carries the copper band and is called as shaded portion of the pole.

ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded pole induction motor an alternating
flux is produced. This change of flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is short
circuited, the current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the main flux. The flux in shaded pole
lags behind the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase difference between these two fluxes produces resultant
rotating flux.

4. Define voltage regulation of an alternator. Discuss the emf method of finding voltage regulation
of an alternator.

The Voltage Regulation of an alternator is defined as the rise in terminal voltage when the load is reduced
from full load rated value to no load with speed and field current remaining constant.

Where Eo - No load induced voltage and V- terminal voltage.

E.M.F. or Synchronous Impedance Method

The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.

1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).

2. Open circuit characteristics - graph of open circuit voltage against the field current.
This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
 3. Short circuit characteristics - graph of short circuit current against field current. This is possible by
conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
Here voltage (V) and current (Isc) are taken for the same value of field current (I f).

The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous reactance.
This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence this method is called
pessimistic method.

5. Derive the emf equation of an alternator.

Let P be the number of poles ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers

N is the speed in r.p.m f - frequency in Hertz

Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase

Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase

Kc is the coil span factor or pitch factor Kd is the distribution factor

Flux cut by each stator conductor during one revolution is given as Pϕ Weber.

Time taken to complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec.

 𝒅∅
Therefore average EMF induced per conductor is =
𝒅𝒕

Now average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below

Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by

Eph = Average value * form factor

Coil Span Factor (KC) = Induced emf in a coil when the winding is short pitched

Induced emf in the same coil when the winding is full pitched

Distribution factor (Kd) = Induced emf in the coil when the winding is distributed in a number of slots

Induced emf in the coil group when the winding is concentrated in one slot

6. Compare the different types of synchronous machines.

Synchronous machines can be classified as synchronous generator (alternator) and synchronous motor.

Also based on rotor construction synchronous machines can be classified as Salient pole machine and
Cylindrical rotor machine.
In salient pole type, the rotor consist of large number of projected poles (salient poles) mounted on a
magnetic wheel. The projected poles are made up from laminations of steel. The rotor winding is provided
on these poles and it is supported by pole shoes.

 They have large diameter and shorter axial length.

 Generally used in lower speed applications (100 RPM to 1500 RPM). Mostly used in hydro power
plants.

 Windage loss as well as noise is high as compared to cylindrical pole rotors.

 As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain the required frequency. (Ns
= 120f / P therefore, f = Ns*p/120. Typically number of salient poles is between 4 to 60.

 Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor, hence the generated emf waveform is
not as good as cylindrical rotor.( ie; not pure sine wave)

 Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during operation.

Non-salient pole or cylindrical rotors are cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it to place rotor
windings. It is made up of solid steel.

 They have small diameter but have longer axial length.

 Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed application(1500 RPM to 3000 RPM). Mostly used in
nuclear, gas and thermal power plants. They are called as Turbo generators.

 Windage loss as well as noise is less as compared to salient pole rotors.

 Their construction is robust as compared to salient pole rotors.

 Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.

 Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.

 Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better emf waveform.

7. Discuss the V curve of a synchronous motor.

The graph plotted between the armature current ( Ia ) and field current ( If ) at a particular load is known
as V Curve. Since the shape of these curves is similar to the letter “V”, they are called V curve of
synchronous motor. The power factor of the synchronous motor can be controlled by varying the field
current If.

Let us assume that the motor is running at NO load. If the field current is increased from this small value,
the armature current Ia decreases until the armature current becomes minimum. At this minimum point, the
motor is operating at unity power factor. If now, the field current is increased further, the armature current
increases and the motor start operating as a leading power factor. If this procedure is repeated for various
increased loads, a family of curves is obtained.
8. Explain synchronous condenser.

The main advantage of a synchronous motor is that it can generate or absorb reactive volt-ampere
(VAr) by varying the excitation of its field winding.
Ie; If the motor is under excited, then it will operate in lagging power factor. If it is normally excited,
the power factor will be unity and when the motor is over excited, it will operate in leading power
factor.
Therefore it can be made to take a leading current with over excitation of its field winding.
Synchronous condenser is an over excited synchronous motor running without a mechanical
load.
Thus, it behaves like a capacitor and can be used for power factor improvement of industrial loads as
shown below

9. Explain why synchronous motor is not self starting.

In one word, the answer is due to INERTIA OF ROTOR. It can be explained as follows :

The synchronous motors are doubly excited. One is a 3 phase supply given to stator and other is DC
excitation given to rotor of the motor. The 3 phase ac supply given to stator produces a Rotating
Magnetic Field (RMF) in the air gap, that rotates at Synchronous Speed Ns given as Ns= (120*f)/P
The DC is given to rotor, which produces fixed( stationary) magnetic poles (N-S).

Consider a two pole synchronous machine as shown;

Let, in positive half cycle, the poles produced by stator are as shown in first fig. These poles are
rotating at synchronous speed ( assume in clockwise direction). The rotor poles are fixed, they do not
alter their positions as they are excited from constant dc supply. If we consider the first case the
stator and rotor poles faces each other and which are similar poles, hence they will repel each other,
 hence force is exterted on rotor in anticlockwise direction as shown. The exerted torque let it be ‘-T’
(negative for anticlockwise direction).

Now in negative half cycle, stator poles interchange their position,(fig 2) but rotor poles can't
rotate as they have inertia and friction as this time is too small to respond for the torque. Hence in
negative cycle, stator poles changed but rotor poles remains same, now force exerted on rotor is in
opposite direction. Torque is given as ‘+T’ (positive for clockwise torque).
Hence in one complete cycle average torque exerted on rotor is, Tavg.= -T+T . ie;Tavg.= 0
Hence rotor could not experience net torque on it and motor fails to start.
The motor can be made self started by some external means such as introduction of damper
windings.

10. Explain the principle of operation of synchronous motor.

A synchronous motor is a constant speed AC motor. It takes AC power by the stator from mains
supply for its working in addition it utilizes a small amount of DC power which is fed to its rotor, we
need two kinds of power sources that is one is AC and another is DC as shown in the fig below.

If a three phase AC supply is given to a three phase stator winding of the motor, a rotating magnetic
field is produced. This can be considered as a north and South Pole rotating in space at synchronous
speed ( Ns = 120f/P ). The DC is given to rotor, which produces fixed ( stationary) magnetic poles
(N-S).
Let assume that in positive half cycle, the poles produced by stator and rotor is such that similar
poles are facing, hence they will repel each other, hence force is exterted on rotor in anticlockwise
direction and the exerted torque let it be ‘-T’ (negative for anticlockwise direction).
Now in negative half cycle, stator poles interchange their position, but rotor poles can't rotate as
they have inertia and friction as this time is too small to respond for the torque. Hence in negative
cycle, stator poles changed but rotor poles remains same, now force exerted on rotor is in opposite
direction. Torque is given as ‘+T’ (positive for clockwise torque).
 Hence in one complete cycle average torque exerted on rotor is, Tavg.= -T+T . ie;Tavg.= 0
Hence rotor could not experience net torque on it and motor fails to start.

However, if the rotor of a synchronous motor is rotated by some external means at the start, so that it
also reverses its polarity as the polarity of the stator poles changes, then there exists a continuous
force of attraction between the stator and the rotor poles. This is known as Magnetic locking. Once
the condition of Magnetic locking appears, the rotor poles are dragged by the stator revolving field,
and a continuous torque is obtained and the rotor rotates at the same speed as that of the stator
revolving field, i.e., synchronous speed.

11. Discuss the various methods for starting a synchronous motor.

We knew that synchronous motor is not self starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at a speed very
near to synchronous speed in order to start the motor. This is possible by various method in practice such
as ,

1. Using a pony motors : Here the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of some
external motor like small induction motor. Such an external device is called 'pony motor'. Once the
rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched on. Once the
synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to rotate as
synchronous motor.

2. Using damper winding : In addition to the normal field winding, the additional winding consisting
of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited with the help of end
rings. Such an additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding acts as a squirrel cage rotor
winding of an induction motor and makes it to rotate near to synchronous speed. When the speed is
near to synchronous speed, the dc excitation to the rotor is given and the rotor will pull into
synchronism with the stator rotating magnetic field.
As rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper winding and the rotating
magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is running as synchronous motor, there cannot be any
induced e.m.f. in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start, afterwards it is out
of the circuit.

3. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it : A large synchronous motor are provided with a coupled
d.c. machine. This machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous
speed. Then the excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous
motor, the same d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous
motor is then excited by this exciter itself.

12. Explain Universal motor.

A universal motor is a special type of dc series motor which is designed to run on either DC or single
phase AC supply.

Modifications Done

1. The core and poles of universal motors are made of laminated sheets in order to reduce eddy
currents when running on AC supply.
2. The field windings of the motors are made of fewer turns and thicker to reduce the reactance.
3. The number of armature conductors is increased in order to get the required torque with the low flux.
4. In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction, a compensating winding is used.
5. The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC because of the current induced in the armature
coils. For that reason brushes used are having high resistance.

6. Like all DC machines, universal motors suffer from the effects of commutation such as sparking.
Hence, universal motors are used mainly below 1000W.

These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in series), and hence
produce high starting torque. That is why, universal motors generally comes built into the device
they are meant to drive.

Most of the universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds, exceeding 3500 RPM.
They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage, due to the
reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.

There are two basic types of universal motor : (i)compensated type (ii) uncompensated type

Working : When current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same
current also flows from the armature conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or torque, the
rotor starts to rotate.
When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because, since armature winding
and field winding are connected in series, as polarity of AC changes periodically, the direction of
current in armature and field winding reverses at the same time. Thus, direction of magnetic field and
the direction of armature current reverses in such a way that the direction of force experienced by
armature conductors remains same. Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on
the same principle that DC series motor works.

Applications : Vacuum Cleaners, Mixer Grinders, portable drills, hair dryers, table-fans,
blowers, polishers, kitchen appliance and other power tools

13. Explain the working principle of single phase induction motor.

A Single Phase Induction motor consists of a single phase winding which is mounted on the stator
and a cage winding placed on the rotor. When the stator winding of the single-phase induction motor
is energized by a single phase supply, only a pulsating magnetic field is produced, not a rotating
magnetic field. Then according to double field revolving theory, net torque produced will be zero.
Hence single phase induction motor is not self starting. But if the rotor of the motor is rotated by an
auxiliary means, then motor continues to rotate in the direction in which it is started even when the
same single phase supply is connected to stator winding. This can be explained with the help of
double field revolving theory.
(Include Explanation and Torque slip characteristics of double field revolving theory (question
1)).
In order to make the motor self starting we use an extra starting winding in additional to main
winding at the time of starting.
Eg; Split phase induction motor, Capacitor induction motor, Shaded pole induction motor.
Derive the expression for Frequency of Induced EMF in alternator.