INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED SCIENCE

NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science is the result of man’s effort to understand and explain the world around us.
Science can be defined in a number of ways, for example: ‘Science is the method of obtaining
knowledge through observation and experimentation and evaluation of information gained in relation
with other established bodies of knowledge
Science is a continuous process of investigation and experimentation in order to widen people
understanding of the natural world. It involves the gathering and recording of knowledge to find answers
to the questions and challenges that life poses every day.

Inter- relationship between the various natural sciences

The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share a number
of cross-discipline fields.
 A science specialist for example, a doctor or nurse or civil engineer who wants to achieve a
greater impact in his or her field of work would have to acquire all round knowledge in all the
fields of science under natural sciences such as Chemistry, Biology, Geology, Astronomy,
Agriculture, etc.

 A soil scientist may need the knowledge of biology in order to understand the soil type and
vegetation to decide on the best crop to cultivate in a particular area whilst his good knowledge
in chemistry will help him to understand the inorganic components and the pH of the soil to
determine the suitability of the crops on the land

 The knowledge of physics will help the soil scientists to achieve a good knowledge of rainfall
patterns, as a good harvest is dependent upon planting the crop at a time that will make the most
of any rainfall

Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines

 Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life) and
 Social science which studies human behaviours and societies

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Science can be broadly grouped under two main branches

 Pure science
 Applied science
PURE SCIENCE
Pure science is simply obtaining knowledge from research. These are Biology, Chemistry and Physics.
1. BIOLOGY
It is the study of living organisms (plants and animals). The field encompasses a set of discipline that
examines phenomena related to living organisms. Biology is concerned the characteristics, classification
and behaviours of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other
and the natural environment
Biology is sub-divided into three main branches i.e. Botany – the study of plants
Zoology – the study of animals and microbiology – the study of microorganisms and their effects on the
environment
2. CHEMISTRY
It is the study of the composition and existence of matter. Chemistry is often called the ‘central of
science’ because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Chemistry has three branches
organic, inorganic and physical.
3. PHYSICS
It embodies the study of the fundamental constituent of the universe, the forces and interactions they
exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as
the fundamental sciences as all other natural science uses and obeys the principles and laws set down by
the field.
APPLIED SCIENCE
It is the use of knowledge from pure science to solve problems in our daily lives
Agriculture – the study of cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for man’s use.
Geology – the study of origin, structure and composition of the earth
Astronomy – this discipline is the science of celestial (space) objects and phenomena that originate
outside the earth’s atmosphere. Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars,
planets, comets and galaxies.
Meteorology – the study of the physical phenomena and the processes taking place in the atmosphere
and their interactions with forces of the earth. One of this is the weather forecasting
Engineering – the study of mechanism
Biochemistry – it incorporates the science of biology and chemistry
Biotechnology – the development and application of techniques involving biological process to improve
the production of materials useful to man
CONCEPT OF SCIENCE OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE
Science is an interrelated body of knowledge consisting of various branches of science.
Integrated Science involves the integration of the fields of science (physics, chemistry, biology,
agriculture etc) as one unit where they are interrelated with one another such that none of the fields
stands on its own or stands as an independent subject
The various field of science are related by the fact that they all use the scientific method of solving
problems
Therefore, in the integrated approach of learning science, the various fields (physics, biology, chemistry,
agriculture) have been grouped into the following themes
1. Diversity of matter
2. Cycles
3. Systems
4. Energy
5. Interactions of matter

TECHNOLOGY
Technology can be described in many ways as science

 A discipline using scientific materials and human resources to achieve human purposes or needs
 Technology means the use of or application of scientific knowledge in a practical way
 For example, the invention or manufacture of mobile phones, cars, aeroplanes, trains, ships and
machinery for industries or factories has been made possible as a result of technology
 Technology can be described as all the knowledge, products and scientific skills available to
society being applied to improve life and to satisfy the needs of people
 There is a close relationship between science and technology in particular, and with other
disciples.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Technology uses the knowledge of science to provide us goods and services. Technology is know-how
and science is known why.
Examples of technology includes
 Information technology which refers to the use of computers to processed information. This
processed can be communicated or transmitted to people in other parts of the world through the
use of electronic mails (e-mails), fax, internet etc
 Food technology which refers to the use of scientific methods for processing and preserving
food
 Biotechnology which deals with the use of biological principles, particularly the use of
microorganisms, enzymology and genetic engineering to produce materials for human
consumption
 In simple way, science is ‘know-why’ technology is ‘know how’. Science and technology
depends on each other.
 Many technological advances involve the application of new scientific principles – in the field of
biotechnology or genetic engineering,
 Applied scientists also apply or developed scientific ideas to produce new materials, tools and
machines, improved forms of transport and communication, improvement in agriculture and
biological systems and in many other fields

HOW SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AFFECTS OUR DAILY LIVES

 The study of science has provided us with tools and gadgets for our homes and work places
 The study of science has helped us in the exploitation of natural resources such as gold, diamond,
silver bauxite, timber etc
 Improvement in agriculture, example developing early and high yielding varieties of crops and
provision of mechanized farm equipment such as plough and combine harvesters which have
made farming easier and more convenient with increase in production of food
 Improvement in transportation such as the invention of cars, aeroplanes, ships, trains to
facilitate the movement of people, goods and services from one place to another
 Improvement in education such as teaching and learning materials (TLM) like electronic
boards, slide projectors, the use of computers to search for information from the internet by
means of communication satellites
 Improvement in sanitation as a result of proper management of solid and liquid waste disposal
and recycling methods through the invention of incinerators and sewage treatment plants
 Improvement in health as a result of production of new vaccines and drugs to fight against
deadly diseases such as HIV/AIDS, poliomyelitis, measles, small pox etc. in the same way there
have been an improvement in health equipments needed for diagnosing diseases and for
performing more successful operations
 CAREERS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 Engineers (chemical, mechanical, agricultural, civil, computer, electrical, geology)

 Medical doctors or dentists, veterinary doctor, nurse, medical laboratory scientists
 Chemists, biochemists, food scientists
 Ecologists, zoologists, botanists
 Science teacher
 Nutritionists, caterer

Differences between science and technology

 Science is the study of a particular subject while technology is an applied science.
 Science is focused more on analysis while technology is all about the synthesis of design.
 Science talks about theories while technology talks about processes.
 Science is known why and technology is known how
Prominent Ghanaian and international scientists
A number of Ghanaian and international scientists have contributed towards the development of science
in Ghana and the world. Some of them are:
1. Prof. Frimpong Boateng – Heart surgeon
2. Prof. F.K.A. Allotey – mathematical physicists and information technology
3. Isaac Newton – laws of motion and gravity
4. Graham Bell – invention of telephone
5. G. J. Mendel – father of genetics
6. Wright Brothers – invention of aeroplane
7. Michael Faraday – invention of electric generators
8. John Dalton – a chemist who developed the Daltons atomic theory
9. Albert Einsten – one of the greatest scientists of the world. He is most famous for his ‘relative
theory’ this theory showed that nothing can move faster than the speed of light
NOTE: there are a lot of scientists who have contributed towards the development of science and
technology. Read about the others

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as
well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
Basically, scientific method is the approach to acquiring knowledge in the natural sciences
Scientists use the scientific method in their research works. The scientific method can be used to learn
things around us. You only need an inquisitive mind and a clear logical thinking

 To summarize this, the scientific method refers to the systematic steps scientists follows in order
to solve a problem.
  The scientific method involves the following systematic steps.
 Identification of the problem
 Hypothesis formulation
 Experimentation (data collection, measuring, recording and analysis)
 Analyzing the results from experiments
 Evaluating and
 Conclusion
Identification of the problem
Before every scientific research, the problem must be identified and clearly stated which forms the basis
or the starting point of the research
Example: people who live near marshy areas or choked gutters often suffer from malaria

Hypothesis formulation
A hypothesis is a general idea about things which always happen (a tentative answer to a problem). The
idea can be past or previous information on the problem in which the scientists have identified and
stated clearly such as the cause of the problem.
The problem identified must be stated in such a way that it can be measured and recorded
Example: Marshy areas or choked gutters serve as the breeding grounds for mosquitoes which cause
malaria
Experimentation
This is a very important step in scientific method. To be satisfied with our guesses (hypothesis), we must
work out a method that will allow us to investigate this problem and solve it completely.
During experimentation, the problem is carefully observed. It is then followed by collection of pieces of
information or data and then recorded. At this point the scientist critically observes the recorded results.
The experiment is repeated several times to make sure that the first results were not just by accident
Example: the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes are then searched for by locating marshy areas or
choked gutters in the community. Mosquito insecticides are then used to spray some of the located
choked gutters or marshy areas leaving some of them
After some days, the scientist observed that people who lived closed to the sprayed choked gutters were
healthy while those who closed to choked gutters which were not sprayed suffered from malaria
regularly.
The experiment is repeated in a different community and realized that, the people who lived near choked
gutters suffered regularly from malaria while those who live near choked gutters sprayed did not suffer
from malaria.
Analyzing the results
At this point, the observation and results from the experiment are then analyzed to see if there is a
pattern in the results by means of graphical representation and charts.
Example: here, the observations and results are then analyzed by comparing their trends and then
deduction can be made that, choked gutters or marshy areas serves as a breeding grounds for mosquitoes
Conclusion
After careful observation and analysis of results with repeated experiments, the scientist can now draw a
meaningful conclusion with a clear statement that answers the question raised by the hypothesis
(guesses)
Example: choked gutters or marshy areas should be sprayed regularly with mosquito insecticides to
make the community free of mosquitoes
How doctors used the scientific method to arrive at the kind and cause of a sickness
1. The doctor starts identifying the cause of the sickness by obtaining data or information from the
patient about how the patient feels in his or her body
2. He then calls for a medical examination or laboratory test to be performed on the patient
3. The doctor observes and records the results obtained from the laboratory test
4. He then analyses or explain the results in order to be able to predict the cause of the sickness
5. The doctor draws a conclusion about the type of sickness and then prescribes the right drug for
the patient
GROUP WORK
1. There is malaria outbreak in your community. Outline the scientific method you would follow to
control the outbreak.
2. use the scientific method to established that fact that untreated water such as river or stream is
not safe for drinking

Importance of the scientific method

 the scientific method provides with knowledge that can be verified

 it provides logical procedure for gaining knowledge

Discoveries through the use of the scientific method

1. The discovery of penicillin
 In 1926 the British bacteriologist: Alexander Fleming was working in a London hospital looking
at bacteria, Staphylococcus
 He was examining plate cultures of Staphylococcus when one day he noticed an unexpected
mass of fluffy mould growing in the cultures.
 After some time these masses became dark green in colour and were later identified as
Penicillium notatum, similar to the mould that grows on orange peels
  Five days after he noticed this unexpected growth of mould, Fleming discovered that it secreted a
substance which was able to permeate the culture medium.
 Around the regions where the mould grew, a clear zone was found with no Staphylococci. As
the mould grew, so did the clear zone where no Staphylococci could exist.
 At that time, Fleming concluded that the mould (which he named Penicillium) could have
produced a substance that was able to fight bacterial growth.
 This theory was not accepted; even though he conducted many more scientific experiments with
careful controls in an attempt to prove it.
 At the beginning of the second world war, Howard Florey attempted to find substances that
might be capable of fighting the bacterial infections that developed in wounds and made it
difficult or impossible for the wounds to heal
 After reading about Flemings work, Florey conducted further experiments which leads to the
acceptance and development of penicillin as an antibiotic- a medicinal substance that kills
bacteria or make them inactive

2. The discovery of radioactivity another example of the scientific method

 In 1986, Henri Becquerel was investigating the action of bright sunlight and uranium salts on a
photographic plate
 These plates were securely wrapped, but when placed near the uranium compounds the plates
become flogged, despite the fact that they were covered
 Something must have got through the covering, and it was suggested that the uranium
 The theory was modified, through the further experiments of Roentgen and the Curies to explain
the cause of the fogging.
 It was found that uranium gives off particles quite spontaneously by a process known as
radioactivity. It was these particles that penetrated the covers of the plates
 One experiment may lead to a very unexpected conclusion, as you have seen from the example
cited above

3. The discovery of the law of floatation another example of the scientific method
 Archimedes is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is considered to be the
pioneer of experimental science because he was interested in the application of scientific
theories
 His law of floatation, called Archimedes principles, is said to have made the discovery that led
to the formulation of the law while he was in the bath.
 His king had asked him to find out if his new crown was pure gold or mixture of gold and silver.
 When he stepped in the bath one day he noticed that the water bathed has overflowed the bath.
 He then concluded that a body immersed in water must displace a volume of water equal to the
volume of the body.
 He determined from this conclusion that the crown, although its weight agreed with that of gold
sent to the goldsmith, was greater in volume than the same weight of the pure gold
 It turned out that the goldsmith had kept part of the kings gold and was therefore punished.
SUMMARY
o The importance of research and repeated testing in science is therefore clear
 o These are not typical examples of scientific method but more of accidents that can be interpreted
by the scientifically trained mind
o In order to test and verify their observations, Fleming, Becquerel and Archimedes needed to use
the scientific method.
o They tested their hypothesis by further experiments, checking and rechecking their results, until
finally they could say that their original observations were correct.

SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS IN THE LABORATORY

A school science laboratory is a place that students, technicians and teachers work
 Items in the laboratory may include equipment, instruments, chemicals and gas etc
 It is a place with many hazards and potentially dangerous materials gathered in a small area,
yet human activities have to be carried out there
 Dangers and hazards may be natural- coming from all items in the laboratory or created by
people carrying out the experiments
 One careless act or omission can lead to accidents that may be fatal and destructive to many
The following guidelines are some of the precautions that should be noted or observed when working
1. Do not eat or chew food substances in the laboratory
Reasons: food can be contaminated with poisonous substances
2. Do not smell an unknown gas with the nose very close to the test tube containing the gas
Reason: unknown gas can be harmful, poisonous and irritating to the body
3. Do not walk barefooted in the laboratory
Reason: walking barefooted in the laboratory expose one to the risk of stepping on splashed chemical or
a fallen pin or pointed object or piece of broken glass
4. Do not pour water into the acid but rather acid to water
Reason: such a practice can generate heat and explosion. This enables heavier acid to fall to the bottom
of the container and in the process mix well to spread any heat formed to avoid boiling
5. Do not wash hand with an unknown colourless liquid
Reasons: the liquid can be harmful, poisonous and irritating to the body
6. Do not open a gas tap before looking for a match to light the Bunsen burner
Reason: the gas will leak into the surrounding air and lighting a match afterwards will cause the gas to
inflame or cause fire outbreak
The following steps must be observed as such
o Light the match first
o Hold the lit match at the mouth of the burner
 o Open the tap of the gas source
o Adjust the nozzle or air regulator to get the regulated flame

7. Do not drop a large piece of sodium metal into water

Reason: sodium metal reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide which is corrosive and may cause
burns
8. When possible, heat inflammable substance in a water bath
Reason: to minimize direct contact of the inflammable vapour with the fire source
9. Prevent mineral acid or concentrated chemical from coming into contact with skin or dresses,
as they are very corrosive
Reason: corrosive chemicals can cause burning when split into the body
10. Avoid inhaling vapour from poisonous gases or acids
Reason: can contract respiratory disease
11. Always wear protective device when working with poisonous substances e.g. hand gloves,
should be worn when working with acid. Goggles should be worn to protect the eyes when
working with fumes or gases

12. Always performed poisonous gases with fume chamber

Reasons: to prevent the body from harmful or poisonous gases
13. Close all tap before leaving the laboratory
Reason: the laboratory will be flooded or filled with flammable gas if the taps are left on overnight or a
period of time
14. Spilled liquid must be cleaned immediately
Reason: to avoid slipping
15. Do not work with broken glassware or sharp edged metals

Some hazardous warning or safety symbol and their examples

 Safety signs may be fixed to doors, cupboards etc, to give information to those in the vicinity
 They can be found on chemical bottles or equipment, filling stations, gas stations, hospitals,
drinking bars etc
 Examples are
1. Explosive
Examples are: tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, (H2SO4). Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), trioxonitrate (V) acid,
(HNO3), Ammonium hydroxide, (NH4OH)
2. Poisonous or toxic

Examples: Potassium cyanide, mercury (III) iodide

3. Highly inflammable or no smoking or naked flame

Examples: ether, petrol, propanol, butanal, ethanol etc

4. Harmful or irritant

Examples: bleaching powder, boiling water, butanal, ethanol.

5. Corrosive
 Example: tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, (H2SO4). Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), trioxonitrate (V) acid,
(HNO3), Ammonium hydroxide, (NH4OH), Sodium hydroxide, (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide
(KOH)

6. Oxidizing

Example: hydrogen peroxide, ammonium trioxonitrate (V)

TRIAL QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain why each of the following precautions should be observed
(a) Do not work with broken test tube
(b) When using a Bunsen burner strike the match first before turning the gas on and vice versa
(c) Do not smoke in the laboratory
(d) Do not eat in the laboratory
(e) Step down the main voltage (240V) before use in experiments with small light bulbs in the circuit

1. Identify each of the following warning signs

A B C

D E F G

H I
A……………………………………………………………………………………………………
B…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
C……………………………………………………………………………………………………
D…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
E…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
F…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
G…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
H…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
I……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Give examples of careers that use aspects of each of the three science listed below
a. Biology
b. Chemistry
c. Physics
3. Distinguish between science and technology
4. List five careers in science and technology
5. Suggest four safety measures to be observed in the laboratory

DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

Everything around us can be classified as living or non-living. Living things have life in them. For example, man,
fowls tress etc. thus living things are made up of cells and therefore able to carry out life processes

On the other hand, non-living things do not have life. Examples include stones, pens, books; cars T.V sets etc.
non- living things are not made up of cells hence are unable to carry out life processes

 Diversity means the wide range of differences that a scientist can see when looking at a large number of
organisms. For example, compare an iroko tree (odum) to a rose flower plant, or an ant to a horse.

LIFE PROCESSES OF LIVING THINGS

There are certain characteristic processes that all living organisms can carry out whether they are plants or
animals. This is often called living or life process which is normally termed as characteristics of living things.
The following life activities are common characteristics of all living things or organisms

 Movement
 Respiration To help to remember these, we
 Sensitivity or irritability take only the first of each
 Growth process and put them into an
 Reproduction acronym: Mrs Gren
 Excretion
 Nutrition

MOVEMENT

 Movement is the change of position of the whole or part of the body

 Movement may obvious in some organisms than others as we can see in the case of plants and animals
 Movement involves the whole organisms moving from place to place is called locomotion
 Plants cannot locomote only animals do. Plants move but their movement involves just part of the plant.
For example, growth in the plant, roots moving towards source of light, roots moving towards source of
water, shoots towards light source (plants show fixed movement)
 Examples of movement in animals include walking, flying, jumping, running, swimming.

Reasons why animal move

 To find food and water

 Escape danger or avoid enemies
 Avoid unfavourable conditions
 Find mates or companions
 Find shelter

RESPIRATION

Respiration is the chemical process through which food substances are broken down within cells of organisms
with the release of energy.

Respiration is made up of

 Exchange of gases
 Cellular or internal respiration

Cellular respiration involves the chemical reaction to release energy from food within the cells of living
organisms

If respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen, it is called aerobic respiration. However, the type of
respiration which does not use oxygen is called anaerobic respiration

NOTE

Do not confuse respiration with breathing

 1. Respiration is a chemical process that takes place to provide cells with the energy they need
2. Breathing is the movement of the chest which allows one to take oxygen and get rid of the waste products
of respiration
3. Respiration happens in every cell of one’s body all the time

SENSITIVITY OR IRRITABILITY

 It is the ability of organism s to respond to stimulus

 The ability of living things to react or respond to changes in the environment (stimulus) is called
sensitivity or irritability
 The stimulus can be favourable or unfavourable, when it is favourable, we say it is a positive stimulus,
when it is unfavourbale, we say it is negative stimulus
 For positive or favourable stimulus, the organisms respond by moving towards it. For example, we move
towards food and water
 When the stimulus is negative or unfavourable, the organism respond by moving away from it, for
example we move away from fire, enemies, poison and other dangerous chemicals
 Animals normally respond faster to stimulus than plants because they (animals) have high sensory cells
which are able to detect stimulus almost quickly e.g. light, heat, touch, and gravity

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Cells grow when they undergo permanent increase in size. This increase takes place when the the
organism feeds and uses the food to produce growth materials
 Growth is irreversible increase in size and weight
 Growth brings changes to the body shape and function. For example, a girl before puberty has flat breast
and hips. However at puberty the breast become and hips become broadened an rounded
 In animals growth begins rapidly, slow down and stop when they are adults (growth occurs in all parts of
the body), definite growth.
 Plants grows all their lives (growth occurs at the tips of roots and shoots in flowering plants, this is called
apical growth)

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is important because, it helps to prevent the extinction of organisms

 Reproduction is the ability of living things to produce young/new individuals or offspring’s of their own
kind
 There are two types of reproduction
 Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes (sex cells) during fertilization to form a zygote
which develops into a new individual. Here both parents, male and female parts are involved
 Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes. Here part of the plant grows to become a
new individual. Here only one parent is involved

EXCRETION

 Excretion is the process whereby metabolic waste (waste products produced by chemical reactions) is
eliminated or removed from the body of living organisms.
 Many of the metabolic waste materials are useless, poisonous or harmful if they accumulate in the body.
For example animals excrete carbon dioxide, water, ammonia (urea), and salt (sweat)
  Plants excrete oxygen and carbon dioxide only during the nights, gums, resins, mucilage etc

NUTRITION

 Nutrition is the process by which an organism obtain or make food in order to carry on other life
processes since energy is produced
 Food is the source of the energy and materials required to build the structures necessary for other
processes
 Animals and plants undergo this process of feeding in different ways
 Plants make their own food by a process called photosynthesis. This involves the taking in of simple
substances like carbon dioxide, water and with the help of energy from sunlight is able to make
complex substances (nutrients) which can be used as food.
 Animals eat plants and other animals. They then break down the complex substances into simpler ones
which are used for growth and energy

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

 The life processes (characteristics) of living things differentiate them from non-living things
 Living things can undergo all the life processes but non living things cannot under gothese characteristics
 For example, a dog (a living thing) can undergo all the life processes but a car (non- living thing) can only
move). It cannot grow or reproduce.
 The table below gives the differences between living things and non-living things

Living things Non-living things

Made up of mainly protoplasm Has no protoplasm

They require nourishment to exist Do not require nourishment to exist

They can move on their own Cannot move on their own. Can be moved by
pulling or pushing

Respond to stimulus (both external and Do not respond to stimulus. They are not
internal). They are irritable irritable

Respire to release energy for their activities Do no undergo respiration

Ability to get rid of waste materials in their Do not get rid of waste materials in their
bodies (undergo excretion) bodies (no excretion)

Undergo self-reproduction Do not undergo self-reproduction

Growth by the addition of new materials May increase in size by the addition of new
produced by the organism substances from the environment
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
PLANTS
Movement
Plants are mostly fixed to the soil and therefore are
not able to move about freely. However, parts of
the body may move. For example roots and shoots.
A few unicellular water plants on the other hand
show active movement
Respiration
Plants respire during the daytime by taking in
carbon dioxide and given out oxygen
Sensitivity/irritability
Plant react slowly to external stimulus such as
light, touch, heat and gravity
Growth and development
Most plants show indefinite growth. For example,
in flowering plants, most growth occurs at the tips
or roots and shoots. This is called apical growth
Excretion
Plants have no special excretory organs to remove
waste metabolic products
Nutrition
Green plants are able to prepare their own food by
the process of photosynthesis. This mode of
nutrition is called autotrophic or holophytic
nutrition
BIODIVERSITY
ANIMALS
Movement
Animals move about freely from place to place in
search of food, shelter or to escape danger. We also
called this locomotion
Respiration
Animals respire by taking in oxygen and given out
carbon dioxide both day and night
Sensitivity/irritability
Reaction of animals to external stimulus such as
heat, light, touch and gravity is quick.
Growth and development
Animals exhibit definite growth. In animals,
growth occurs in all parts of the body equally. This
is called intercalary
Excretion
Animal have special excretory organs to remove
metabolic waste materials
Nutrition
Animals cannot prepare their own food because
they do not posses chlorophyll to be able to
undergo photosynthesis. They depend on plants for
their food. Their mode of nutrition is called
holozoic or heterotrophic nutrition.
  Many people believe that, it is wrong for humans to damage natural habitats and cause the death of plants
and animals
 They believe that it is important to keep a wide variety of different plants and animals alive
 The variety of different organisms living in a particular area is called biodiversity

There are many reasons given trying to maintain biodiversity

1. Some organisms may prove to be useful in the future, for breeding, producing drugs or for their genes
2. Losing organisms may have effects on other organisms in their food web
3. Losing organisms may have unexpected effects on the environment, such as the erosion caused by
deforestation

To be able to save habitats and organisms, people have set up many different schemes

The attempt to preserve habitats and keep species alive is called conservation

If human population is going to continue to increase, it is important that we meet the demand for food and energy
without causing pollution or over-exploitation of these resources

 Providing for the increasing population without using up resources or causing pollution is called
sustainable development

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES FOR LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

 If we look around us, we can see animals and plants of all kinds, types, sizes, form and shapes.
 Similarly, we also see a lot of no-living things around us. Scientists therefore decided to group these
things so that one would be able to describe the groups which they have common characteristics so as to
make things easier
 Classification means to put things into classes or groups. organisms in particular groups resemble each
other in certain ways
 Biological classification refers to the sorting out of living and putting them into groups based on their
common characteristics

The Basis for classification

In grouping things, a system is used

 A system allows information to be stored in patterns

 A system has a number of signs ranks, names, or labels for the groups
 Each name, rank, sign, or labels describe the characteristics of the members of a particular group

Importance of classification
 For grouping purposes
 It helps scientists to communicate easily with each other
 Easily identify and study both living and nom-living things
 Brings order in naming and identifying organisms
 Brings out the potential use of living and non-living things
 To show similarities and natural relationship between organisms within the same group or belonging to
different group
The branch of biology concerned with the principle of classification is called taxonomy

The person involved in the study of taxonomy is called taxonomists

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

ARISTOTLE

 Aristotle lived around 384 -322 BC. He was a Greek philosopher and a biologist (naturalist)
 Aristotle was one of the earliest scientists who came out with a system of classification
 His system of classification was based on the similarities and differences of the organisms
 He classified animals by looking at the way they move and put them together
 For example, he put together flying animals as one group, those that run as one and those that swim as
one group.
 Another way he classified animals was on whether they posses red blood or not
 In his classification of plants, Aristotle used appearance and size as a basis and grouped them into trees,
shrubs and herbs
 Aristotle’s way of classification was not good enough because, for example, flying animals could include
bats, insects, birds and flying fish
 Thus, the only thing that they have in common in their ability to fly (movement)
 The group members do not have natural relationships hence was a less useful method of classification
 Aristotles method was however, used for about 2000 years before being replaced by another system by
Carolus Linnaeus

CAROLUS LINNAEUS

 Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist who lived between 1707nand 1778.

 His system of classification was called the natural system
 The natural system was based on natural relationships and it brought together organisms according to the
things they have in common
 Plants and animals were classified on the basis of their body structures
 This system of classification gave every organism distinctive two-part name called the binomial system
 The system of classification developed by Linnaeus is still use today
 According to him every living organism belongs to seven ranks
 These ranks are listed in increasing order of similarities in features as one goes down the list as shown
below

KINGDOM
NOTE: use this acronym to
remember the ranks
PHYLUM/DIVISION
King Pharaoh Calls
CLASS
Order For General Science

ORDER

FAMILY
 GENUS

SPECIES

Plan of system of classification

This system has seven (7) major labels or ranks or taxa. The taxonomist’s classify living things into seven major
ranks or taxa. These are

Kingdom → phylum → class → order → family → genus → species

The first ranked being the largest or largest. Thus, the kingdom is the highest taxon or rank followed by the
phylum, class, order etc with species being the smallest rank

The following points must be noted

1. In the classification of plants, the taxon ‘division’ is used in place of ‘phylum’

2. Similarities within a group increase from the largest to the smallest (top to bottom). For example,
likeness is more pronounced at the species level and is least at the kingdom level
3. Organisms at the species level are able to mate and produce offspring’s easily than at the genus level.
Mating at the kingdom level is not likely to be possible

Kingdom
 This is the highest taxa. Organisms in a kingdom may have some characteristics in common
 For example, all plants belong to the kingdom plantae because they have a lot in common e.g., cellulose
cell wall
 There are five main kingdoms for living organisms. These are
 Kingdom animalia
 Kingdom plantae
 Kingdom fungi
 Kingdom protoctista
 Kingdom prokaryotae

Phylum
 It is a small group within a kingdom. In the phylum, the organisms may have a common body plan. For
example, animals which have backbones may be put in a different phylum from those without backbones
but may belong to the same kingdom

Class
 This is a group within a phylum. Organisms in a class have more common characteristics they have in
phylum
 For example, lizard and the fish have backbones so they are in the same phylum but belongs to different
class because they differ in many characteristics

Order
 It is a sub-group of a class. Organisms in an order look alike more alike than they do in a class. For
example, man and dog are in the same class (mammalian) but they belong to different orders
Family
 It is a subset within an order. In family, organisms look more alike than in order

Genus
 This is a sub-grouping within the family. Organisms in the genus have similar features and very much
alike nut they cannot interbreed (i.e., they cannot mate to produce offspring’s)
 For example, the orange and the lemon and the orange belong to the same genus. Also, plantain and
banana belong to the same genus but different species

Species
 It is a subset of genus. This is the smallest taxon or rank and also the unit of classification
 A species is a group of organisms which are so alike in structure, function and characteristics’ that they
can interbreed to produced fertile offspring’s
 Organisms resemble each other in many respects and can interbreed to produce viable offsprings.
 For example, human beings belong to the same species (both white and black) and can mate to produce
viable offsprings

In summary, as we move down the taxa from kingdom to species, the similarities among organisms at
subsequent levels increase and hence become easier to identify them as belonging to a common class

THE FIVE KINGDOMS

In grouping living things, there are five main kingdoms namely:

 Kingdom Monera or Prokaryotae

 Kingdom Protoctista or Protista
 Kingdom Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Monera or Prokaryotae

They include bacteria (bacterium) e.g. E. coli, cyanobacteria, blue green algae. Their characteristics include

 They are microscopic

 They are unicellular organisms
 They have cell wall
 They have no definite nucleus
 They have no membrane bound organelles/have no membrane around nucleus
 They have one or more flagella (thin whip-like structure)
 Their cytoplasm is surrounded by a capsule or mucilage

Kingdom Protoctista or Protista

They are not plants, fungi or animals. They include algae and protozoans. Examples are

Protozoans – amoeba, paramecium, euglena, plasmodium, spirogyra, trypanosome

Algae – green algae, slime mould

Their characteristics include

 Many are unicellular with few multicellular species which do not show a high degree of differentiation
(are organisms made up of one or few cells)
 They have normal cell organelles but no tissue or organs
 They have nucleus (eukaryotic) which is enclosed with nuclear membrane

Kingdom Fungi
Fungi include fungus, mucor (bread mould) and mushrooms

Examples are: mushroom e.g. agaricus

Moulds and mildews e.g rhizopus

Parasitic fungi: athlete foot, ringworm

Their characteristics include

 All are eukaryotic and non-mobile multicellular organisms

 They have definite nucleus
 Vegetative body is called mycelium
 Their bodies are made of branching tubes or hyphae
 They have no chlorophyll hence they depend on external food sources (non-photosynthetic)
 They reproduced by means of spore formation
 Their cell wall is made up of chitin. Their outer wall is not made of cellulose
 They have no roots, stems, and leaves
 Their mode of nutrition is either saprophytic or parasitic

Kingdom Plantae
This kingdom houses all plants. They include the monocots and the dicots. E.g., maize, mango, moss fern,
conifers, liverworts, flowers, tress etc.

Their characteristics include

 They are all multicellular organisms

 They have a nucleus enclosed by nuclear membrane (eukaryotic)
 They have chloroplasts used to manufacture their own food by photosynthesis
 They have cell walls made of cellulose

Kingdom Animalia
This includes all animals e.g. man, fish, worm. Apes, monkeys, toad, snake, molluscs(snail, octopus, oyster).
Their characteristics include

 They have nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane

 They have no cell wall
 They are multicellular organisms
 They reproduce by means of fusion of male and female gametes
 They rely on external sources for food. (non-photosynthetic) and hence lack chlorophyll in their cells
AKARYOTES

 These are nucleo protein particles with no nucleus.

 They depend upon other living organisms for their existence
 Thus, they are able to grow and reproduce only in the cells of other living organisms
 An example is virus

VIRUSES

 Viruses are very tiny organisms that cannot be seen under light microscope but rather can be seen under
the electron microscope since they are much smaller than bacteria
 Generally, they do not fall under any of the five kingdoms
 A virus is made up of strands of either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid) covered
with a sheath of proteins
 Viruses have no nucleus, cytoplasm or cell wall, some of them can be crystallized like chemicals, which
are non-living
 They have a variety of shapes e.g. rods, spiral, spheres, hexagonal
 The reasons why viruses are not classified under any of the five kingdoms are
 They are non-living
 They are not cells but particles
 They have no nucleus, cytoplasm, or cell membrane
 However, viruses can reproduce when inside living cells and can also be regarded as living
 Thus, they are non-living but at times they are classified as living
 Viruses cause diseases both in plants and animals, these include sore throat, poliomyelitis, yellow fever,
influenza, mumps, measles, AIDS in people
 In plants virus cause tobacco mosaic, cassava mosaic etc

Features (reasons) that classify viruses as non-living

 They cannot grow or reproduce on their own
 They lack definite nucleus
 They do not move

Features (reasons) that classify viruses as living

 They contain DNA/nucleic acid
 They reproduce only when they are within other living cells

NAMING ORGANISMS BY CLASSIFICATION

 In naming biological organisms, the binomial system of nomenclature is used

 The binomial system of nomenclature refers to a Linnaeus system of classification in which every
organism is given a two-part Latin names
 The first part of the name is the genus to which the organisms belong. The second name shows the
species to which it belongs
 The genus should start with a capital letter but the species begin with a small letter
 Both names are underlined separately. However, in most texts, they are written in italics
 Examples are:

Common name Genus Species

Man Homo sapiens

House fowl Gallus domesticus

Mango Magnifera indica

Domestic dog Canis familiaris

Cats Felis catus

Lion Panther leo

Tiger Panther tigris

The table below gives the classification of man and maize using all the seven taxa

Man – Homo sapiens, Maize – Zea mays

RANK MAN MAIZE

Kingdom Animalia Plantae

Phylum Chordata Angiospermaphyta

Class Mammalian Monocotyledoneae

Order Primates Graminales

Family Homonidae Graminaeae

Genus Homo Zea

species sapiens mays

CLASSIFICATION IN CHEMISTRY

 The system of classification of the elements is called the periodic system

 The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number or the number of electrons in atom of
each element
 The periodic table is an arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic number so that
elements with similar properties are placed in vertical called groups. Those that were in horizontal rows
called periods showed smooth and regular changes in properties in passing from one element to another.
 The periodic table was produced by Russian scientists called Dmitri Mendeleev in 1860.
 Mendeleev predicted that some of the families of the elements contained elements yet to be discovered
  The regular occurrence of similar chemical and physical properties of the elements with increasing atomic
number in the periodic table is called periodicity
 It was discovered that the properties of the elements changed gradually as their atomic numbers
increased.
 Another observation was that some of the elements showed similar properties

The table below shows the classification of the first 1 – 20 elements

Elements/Symbol Metals or non-metals

Hydrogen, H Non- metal

Helium, He Non-metal

Lithium, Li Metal

Berylium, Be Metal

Boron, B Metal

Carbon, C Metal

Nitrogen, N Non-metal

Oxygen, O Non-metal

Fluorine, F Non-metal

Neon, N Non-metal

Sodium, Na Metal

Magnesium, Mg Metal

Aluminium, Al Metal

Silicon, Si Metal

Phosphorus, P Metal

Sulphur, S Non- metal

Chlorine, Cl Non-metal

Argon, Ar Non-metal

Potassium. K Metal

Calcium, Ca metal

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN SOCIETY

  Human beings are also classified into social groups. Such classifications are done by sociologists
 Sociology is basically the study of human societies
 Human society may be divided into the following groups

Family: It is the unit of a social group. There are two types of families. These are the nuclear family and the
extended family.

The nuclear is made up of husband, wife and the child (children)

The extended family is made up of a larger number of people. It consists of two or more nuclear families and
other relations may be made up of parents, brothers, and sisters of the nuclear family’s parent
An extended family may be a clan

Clan: it is a number of families who believe to have come from a common ancestor
Tribe /Ethnic group: a number of clans make up an ethnic group or tribe
Members of a particular clan may have certain common characteristics. For example, they may live in a given
geographical area, speak the same language, have the same culture, and may have a centralized political system
with one ruler

Examples of tribes are Gas, Asantes, Frafras, Ewes, Kwahus, Akyems etc.

Class: social groups are normally divided into classes

A class is a collection or division of people based on level of education, power, income, wealth, job, or family
name.

For example, rich people are normally placed in the upper class of society and the poor in the lower class.

Classes exist in extended families, clans and ethnic groups.

The nuclear family often belongs to a certain class. For example, it may belong to the rich, poor or educated class

SCIENTIFIC UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

In our daily life, we make measurement all the time. A shopkeeper measures the key soap he/she sells to you: a
person at a petrol pump measures the volume of petrol he/she fills in your car, a doctor measures your body
temperature when you are ill, and a kente weaver measures the strips that he make. Thus measurements are
important in our daily life

 Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some fixed quantity of the same kind
 Quantities such as weight (or mass), time, temperature, length , speed etc. that can be measured are
physical quantities

Basic unit of measurement

 Until few years ago, different countries had their own units of measurement. This was very confusing
 In the year 1960, the General Conference of Weight and Measures recommended that a common system
should be used all over the world
  The system was called System International (S.I). S.I is the abbreviation of ‘System International units’
in French.
 This comprehensive system of units of measurements has been adopted internationally
 S.I units are described as standard units

Standard unit is a unit of measurement understood and accepted by people and countries all over the world

 In Ghana, the standard units are maintained by the Meteorology Division of the Ghana Standard Board

Among the standard units, there are seven (7) of them being classified as based units of the S.I system

The seven based units are

 Length (l)
 Time (t)
 Mass (m)
 Electric current (I)
 Temperature (T)
 Luminous intensity (lv)
 Amount of substance(n)

Each of the seven based units is also measured in a particular S.I unit as listed below

Base units also called fundamental units from which all derived units can be obtained

Quantity (Basic Unit) S.I Unit (Measured unit) Symbol of unit

Length (l) metre m (not M)

Time (t) second s (not S)

Mass (m) kilogram kg (not Kg, KG or Kg)

Electric current (I) ampere A (not a)

Temperature (T) kelvin K (not k)

Luminous intensity (lv) candela cd (not Cd, CD or Cd)

Amount of substance (n) mole mol

 Apart from the seven based units, there are also units which are derived from the basic units
 A derived units in the S.I system is a combination of two or more basic units
 Some of the derived units with their respective symbols which are also accepted internationally are listed
below

Quantity (derived unit) S.I Unit Symbol of unit Expressed in terms of

derived units

Force newton N kgms-2

Work and energy joule J Nm not NM

Power watt W Js-1

 Quantity of electricity coulomb C As

Electric potential Volt V WA-1

Electrical resistance Ohm Ω VA-1

Volume cubic metre m3 m3

Density kilogram per cubic kgm-3 kgm-3

metre

Frequency Hertz Hz s-1

Velocity metre per seconds ms-1 ms-1

Writing symbols of units

Look carefully at the symbols of units written in the tables above. The following rules are followed in writing
these symbols,

 Symbols are not followed by full stop

 Symbols are not altered in the plural. For example, we write 1 kg as well as 10 kg, not 10kgs
 Symbols for units are usually written in small letters
 Symbols for units derived from the names of scientists are written in capital letters.
 For example, J, N, K, or W. however, when these units are spell out, like all other units they are written in
small letters. For example joule, kelvin, newton etc
 HOW TO OBTAIN THE UNITS OF SOME DERIVED UNITS
1. Volume

Volume of a rectangular block = l x b x h = m x m x m =m3

Where l = length of block, b= breadth of block and h =height of block

2. Density = mass
Volume

= kg = kg/m3 or kgm-3
m3

3. Velocity = displacement = m = m/s or ms-1

Time s

4. Acceleration = change in velocity = m =m = m/s2 or ms-2

Time s sxs
s

Trial questions
5. Force = Mass x Acceleration
= kg x ms-2 = kgms-2 Derive the formula for finding:
i. the density of a substance
ii. Velocity of a body in
6. Work = force x distance motion
= Nm =J

7. Quantity of electricity = Current x Time

= A x s = As

8. Potential difference = work done = J = JC-1

Charge C

9. Electrical resistance = potential difference = V = VA-1

Current A

10. Power = work done = J = Js-1

Time s
Quantitative and measuring instruments
 Different instruments are used to measure different quantities. A metre scale is used to measure the length
of a piece of cloth
 A weighing scale is used to measure the mass of vegetables and a clock to measure time
 But it will be very difficult to measure the girth or circumference of a tree using the a metre scale
 For this reason, a measuring tape is used. An ordinary watch cannot accurately measure the time taken by
you to run a distance of 100m, you need a stop watch.
 Therefore, in order to make accurate measurements, you must use appropriate instruments, and know how
to use these instruments properly.

Quantity Measuring instrument (s) Unit

Mass Balances e.g. kilogram (kg)

 Top pan balance sub-unit is gram (g)

 Spring balance
 Lever arm balance
 Electronic balance
 Dial spring balance
 Top balance

Length Metre rule, vernier calipers, metre (m), sub-units are

surveyors tape, measuring tape,
micrometer screw gauge, pair of  centimeter
callipers  millimeter (mm)

Volume Graduated beaker, volumetric Cubic centimeter (cm3) or

flask, measuring cylinder, milliliter (ml)
burette, pipette,
Sub-unit is cubic millimeter (mm3)
Note: these are used for
measuring volumes of liquids

Time  stop watch seconds (s)

 stop clock
 electronic watch
 electronic clock
 Temperature Thermometers e.g. kelvin (K)

 Celsius thermometer degree Celsius (0C)

 Clinical thermometer
 Absolute thermometer

Atmospheric pressure Barometers e.g. pascal (Pa)

 Fortins barometer
 Aneroid barometer

Electric potential Voltmeter volt (V) subunit is millivolt (mV)

Electric current Ammeter ampere (A), subunit is milliampere

(mA)

Luminous intensity Photometer candela (cd)

Scientific measuring instruments and their specific functions

Measuring instruments Specific functions used for

Vernier calipers  Measuring short distances

 Measuring distances between two points
 Measuring the diameter of drinking cup

Pair of calipers Measuring internal and external diameter of a solid

hollow object e.g. bucket, cup

Micrometer screw gauge  Measuring extremely short distances

 Measuring diameter of wire
 Measuring thickness of paper, cloth, metal
sheet

Spherometer  Measuring radius of a spherical surface

 Measuring curved surfaces e.g. curved
mirror, surface of an egg or surface of
football
Opisometer Measuring curved lines

Pipette, measuring cylinder or burette Measuring accurate and or specific volumes of

liquid

Volumetric flask Measuring accurate and or specific volumes of

liquid

Newton metre Measuring weight of objects

Metre rule, tape measure or ruler Measuring lengths

Stop-clocks and watches Measuring time

Weighing sales or spring balance Measuring weight

Balances (beam/chemical/electronic) Measuring mass

Hydrometers Measuring density of liquids

Thermometers Measuring temperature

Voltmeter Measure electric potential (voltage)

Ammeter Measuring electric current

Aneroid barometer Measuring atmospheric pressure

Speedometer Measuring speed of moving objects

Anemometer Measuring speed of wind

Photometer Measuring luminous intensity

Rheostat To change resistance in an electric circuit

Transformer For varying (increasing or decreasing) voltage

Micrometer screw gauge

Vernier calliper
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
a. Using the metre rule
 Straight edges and distances are measured with a metre rule or surveyors tape.
 It is suitable for measuring lengths from a few millimeters to one metre
 Shorter forms of this ruler are the thirty-centimetre and fifteen- centimetre rules
 They are often used for mathematical an scientific exercises
Precautions to be taken when using the metre rule or ruler
1. It must be ensured that one end of the object coincides perfectly with the zero mark
2. A gap between the ruler and the object must be avoided since it brings error into the scale reading
3. the scale must be read to the nearest millimeter
4. it is important that the person positions his or eyes directly above the point on the scale to be read, in
order to avoid error of parallax ( i.e. apparent relative movement of two objects which are fixed owing to
the movement on the part of the observer)

b. using the vernier calliper

This is used to measure short distances where ordinary rule cannot be used
Sliding jaw

 the vernier calliper consists of a steel scale with a fixed jaw at one end
 the object to be measured is placed between the fixed jaw and the sliding jaw
 the short scale of ten divisions seen on the sliding jaw is called the vernier scale
 the vernier scale graduated in millimetres enables us to obtain accurately the second decimal place
 the inside jaw of the calliper is used to measure the internal diameter while the outer jaw is used to
measure external measurement
  the metal (on which the main scale is) that projects beyond the base of the calliper is used for measuring
the depth of cylindrical objects

The pair of calliper is used to measure the internal and external diameter of a solid hollow object which rulers
cannot be used to measure directly

 A pair of callipers is made from hinged steel with two curved legs
 The legs are open and closed to approximate the distance or required distance measurement
 This is then measured using a metre rule or ruler
 A pair of callipers have no scale

c. Using the micrometer screw gauge

 The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure small lengths such as the diameter of a wirenor the
thickness of a sheet of metal
 The instruments can be measured to the nearest 0.01mm

 The object to be measured is first placed between the anvil and the spindle and the ratchet is turned until
the screw slightly touches the object to be measured
 The sleeve is graduated in millimetres along the lower scale
 The thimble is calibrated with division of 0.01mm.

MEASUREMENT OF MASS AND WEIGHT

 The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains. It is measured in kilograms (kg)
 The weight of the body is the force of gravity acting on the body. It is measured in newtons
 The mass of a body and its weight is related by W =mg, where W is the weight, m is the mass and g is
the acceleration due to gravity. Therefore once the mass of a body is known, its weight can be
determined.
  In the laboratory, mass is measured using a beam balance, a lever balance, top pan balance or electronic
balance, dial spring balance,
 One instrument that is often used to measure weight is the newtonmeter
 The newtonmetre looks like a spring balance but its calibrated in newtons

A spring balance

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

 Mass Weight

It is defined as the quantity of matter in a the force acting on a body due to the
body earth’s gravitational pull

Constant everywhere Varies from place to place

Beam balance is used mostly to measure Spring balance is used to measure

It is scalar quantity It is vector quantity

It is not force It is a force

Unit is kilogram Unit is newton

MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
 The volume of a body (object) is the amount of occupied the body.
 Its S.I unit is cubic metre (m3). Another unit of measurement is cm3

MEASURING VOLUME OF
1. Regular objects
 The volume of regular shaped solids such as a block of wood or metal is measured from their physical
dimension
 The dimensions can be measured using the metre rule. The readings are recorded and the appropriate
formula used to calculate the volume
 For regular solids, the volume may be easily calculated from their physical dimensions. Foe example

 Volume of rectangular block = length (l) x breadth (b) x height (h)

 Volume of a cylinder = πr2h
 Volume of sphere = 4/3πr3
 Volume of cone = 1/3πr3h
 Where h = height and r= radius of cylinder sphere or cone

2. Liquid
 in the laboratory, various sizes of graduated cylinders are used to measure volume of a liquid
  the cylinders are transparent and calibrated in volume units so that the vertical of the liquid is used to read
the volume of the liquid
 the measuring cylinder is for measuring or pouring out various volumes of liquid
 the measuring flask and the pipette are used for getting fixed pre-determined volumes
 the burette delivers any required volume up to its total capacity usually 50cm 3
 readings on all these instruments are always taken at the level of the bottom of the meniscus or curved
surface of the liquid as shown below

MEASURING VOLUME OF LIQUID

a. using the measuring cylinder

 the measuring cylinder is used to determine the volume of liquids or irregular solids
 when the volume of a liquid is to be determined, the liquid is poured into the cylinder and the volume
read at the meniscus
 the meniscus may bulge downwards as shown with most liquids e.g. water or upwards, as occurs with
mercury
 reading should be taken at eye level (i.e. in a horizontal plane at 90 0 to the meniscus)

b. using the pipette

 the pipette is used to measure accurate volumes of liquids
 the pointer end of the pipette is immersed in the solution
 The mouth is put at the blunt or opposite and air sucked from it. The liquid level is allowed to rise above
the and a finger used to seal the end where the mouth was put
 the finger is partially removed to drain some liquid to the mark
 the finger is completely removed to allow liquid to drain into appropriate container
 c. using the volumetric flask and burette
The volumetric flask is used for the preparation of standard solutions or for measure of specific volumes

The burette is used for titration

or for measuring known volume
of solution

Other measuring instruments that can be used to measure a required volume of liquid include the standard
volumetric flask and graduated beaker

Precautions to be taken when measuring volumes of liquid with measuring cylinder and the like
1. put the measuring cylinder on a flat surface
2. have your eyes at the same level as the surface of the liquid
3. take the reading from the bottom part of the meniscus and from the upper part of the meniscus as shown
above

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
 Watches and clocks measure time. The base unit of time is the seconds
 the multiples of the second are minutes, hours, days, months and years
 an accurate measure of time can be produced by modern quartz, digital and electronic watches
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY OF LIQUID USING THE HYDROMETER
 the densities of certain liquids can be measured using the hydrometer
 a floating body will sink to different depths in different liquids, as its weight will be the same in liquids of
different densities
 This is the principle on which hydrometers are built.
 A hydrometer is a weighted bulb with long marked stem
 The weight keep the hydrometer erect and it sinks to a mark on the stem, showing the density of the liquid

NOTE: The hydrometer sinks lower in liquid of low density and floats higher in liquid of high
density. The weight keeps the hydrometer erect and it sinks to the mark on the stem, showing the
density of the liquid
Uses of hydrometers
 Hydrometers are used to show whether a car battery is charged (by measuring the density of the acid in
the battery)
 To measure the density of alcohol and other liquids

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
 The temperature of a body is how hot or cold a body is
 Temperature is therefore defined as the hotness or coldness of a body on a chosen scale

A clinical thermometer
  The scale chosen depends on the thermometer being used
 There are a number of different thermometers
 Some of these are the mercury thermometer (which contain mercury in bulb), the ethanol
thermometer, (which contained coloured ethanol) Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer and the
clinical thermometer
 The Six’s maximum and minimum thermometer is used mainly by gardeners in greenhouses to determine
the maximum and the minimum temperatures of the day

REASONS WHY WE SHOULD MEASURE ACCURATELY

There is the need for accurate measurements to be taken in order to

1. Prevent wastage
2. Prevent cheating
3. Avoid drawing wrong conclusions when experiments are conducted
4. Prevent overdose and under dose in the preparation and dispensing of medicines
5. Obtain reliable measuring results
6. Prevents wrong judgments and decisions
7. To be able to make right/informed decisions

CONCEPT OF REPLICATION OF RESULTS

 Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during their experiments, unconsciously veer
(swerve, turn) from the scientific method for various reasons, or (in rare cases) deliberately falsify their
results
 Consequently, it is common practice for other scientists to attempt to repeat the experiments in order to
duplicate the results, thus further validating the hypothesis
 Considerable confidence is added if an attempt is replicated by other researchers.
 This helps confirm that the previous results were not dependent on some unreported aspect of the first
experiment and that it was not the result of a statistical fluke (accident, coincidence) or sloppy (shoddy,
poor, careless) or fraudulent work
 Thus different scientists use the same procedure to

o Ensure accuracy and consistency of work

o Arrive at hypothesis
o Make better predictions
o Add to scientific knowledge

CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Calibration refers to the process of determining the relation between the output (or response) of a measuring
instrument and the value of the input quantity or attribute, a measurement standard

OR

Calibration refers to an activity of comparing a measuring device against a standard one to ensure its accuracy
  In non-specialized use, calibrations is often regarded as including the process of adjusting the output or
indication on a measurement instrument to agree with the value of the applied standard, within a specified
accuracy
 For example, a thermometer could be calibrated so the error of indication or the correction is determined
and adjusted (e.g. via calibration constants) so that it shows the true temperature in Celsius at specified
points on the scale

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS

1. Use of wrong apparatus or instruments
2. Use of depleted apparatus or instruments
3. Wrong calibration of instruments
4. Wrong reading of instruments

TRUTHFUL AND ACCURATE RECORDING OF DATA

 Beyond honest errors and errors caused through negligence (inattention, carelessness) are a third
category of errors: those that involve deception
 Making up data or results (fabrication) and using the ideas or words of another all strike at the heart of the
values on which science is based
 These acts of scientific misconduct not only undermine progress but the entire set of values on which the
scientific enterprise depends
 Its consequences are too extreme. It can harm the individual out of science, for example, when falsified
results are used as a basis of a medical treatment of a patient
 A scientist must therefore have the following human values, honesty, integrity, truthfulness, sincerity
and openness.
 These values can be developed through measuring and recording of data accurately

TRIAL QUESTIONS

1. Give three reasons why quantities should be measured accurately and honestly.
2. Mention six human values that are of importance to the scientist

DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

 The density of an object is the ratio of the mass of the body and its volume
 The mass per unit volume of a material is called its density
 Mathematically, density is defined as

Density = mass or p = m
Volume V
Note the following
1. Density = Mass
Volume
2. Mass = Density x Volume
3. Volume = Mass
Density

 The S. I unit for density is kg/m-3 or g/cm3

 Density helps engineers to determine the type of material to be used in particular construction work
 For example, aeroplanes are built with metals of low density
 Materials that are less dense than water, such as wood or cork, will float on water
 Materials that are denser than water, such as iron and stone will sink

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE DENSITY OF IRREGULAR SOLIDS

For an irregular solid like stone, a pair of metal or a piece of coal can be determined as follows
Apparatus: measuring cylinder/eureka, stone or any irregular object, water, beaker, weighing balance

 Weigh the solid (by using a beam balance )and record the mass M
 Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the initial level of water V1
 Tie the object with a thread and lower it gently into the water until it is completely immersed in the water
(in the figure below)
 Record the new level V2 of water after immersion of object or solid into the water

Density is calculated as follows

Weight of solid = M
Initial volume of water = V1
Final volume of water = V2
Volume of solid = V2 - V1
Density = Mass = M
Volume V2 - V1

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE DENSITY OF LIQUIDS

The procedure is as outline below
 Weigh a clean dry beaker and record its mass, M1
 Using a pipette or burette run off a known volume (V) of liquid into the beaker
 Weigh the beaker and the liquid and record the mass M2

Density is calculated as follows

Weight of beaker = M1 g
Weight of beaker and liquid = M2 g
Weight of liquid = M2 – M1
Volume of liquid = V

Density = Mass = M2 – M 1
Volume V

DENSITY OF REGULAR OBJECTS E.G. CUBOID

 It is easy to measure the volume of regular shaped solids such as a block of wood or metal from their
physical dimensions
 The dimensions can be measured by the help of a metre rule. The readings are recorded and the
appropriate formula used to calculate the volume
The volume of a rectangular solid object
= length x breadth x height of object
=LxBxH
The volume of a cylinder = πr2h
The volume of sphere = 4/3πr3
The volume of a cone = 1/3πr2h
The volume of a right pyramid = 1/3 x Area of the base x height
OR
 An object of cuboids shape is weighed on a beam balance and its mass recorded
 The dimension of the object is measured using appropriate instruments e.g. metre rule
 The volume = length x breadth x height

Density = Mass
 Volume
Calculations
Length = y cm
Breadth = x cm
Height = z cm
Volume of block = x.y. z
Density of block = Mass of block
Volume of block (x. y. z)

DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF A SAMPLE OF SOIL (GARDEN SOIL)

OR SAND

1. The mass of the sample of soil is measured by means of a beam balance or chemical balance and the
results recorded Mg
2. Water is poured into a measuring cylinder to a suitable level or half full. The initial level of water is read
and recorded V1cm3
3. The sample of soil is gently poured into the measuring cylinder containing water. The level of the water
goes up and this new volume is read and recorded V2 cm3
4. The volume of the soil is calculated by subtracting the initial level of water recorded from the new level
of the water i.e. (V2 - V1)cm3
5. Density of soil = Mass = M =g/cm3
Volume (V2 - V1)

WORK EXAMPLES
1. A piece of metal weighs 90 g. when it is put in measuring cylinder containing water, the water level rose
from 45cm3 mark to the 85cm3 mark . find the density of the metal

Solution
Initial volume of water V = 45cm3
Final volume of water V1 = 85cm3
Volume of metal = V1 – V = 85 – 45 = 40cm3
Mass of metal = 90g
Density = Mass = M = 90 =2.25gcm3
Volume V1 – V 40

2. A piece of iron has a volume of 15cm3 and a mass of 27g. calculate the density of iron in
a. g/cm3 b. kg/cm3
Solution
NOTE: To convert from g/cm3 to
(a)Mass of iron = 27g kg/m3 multiply by 1000
Volume of iron = 15cm 3

Density = Mass = 27g = 1.8g/cm3 From kg/m3 divide by 1000

Volume 15cm 3

(b) 1 g/cm3 = 1000kg/m3

= 1.8g/cm3 = 18000 kg/m3
The density in kg/cm3 = 18000kgm3
TRIAL THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

1. A lump of gold has a density of 6g cm-3 and volume of 24 cm3. Calculate the mass of the stone

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ANSWER= 144g

2. A piece of stone weighs 90g. When put in a measuring cylinder, the water level rose from 48cm 3 mark the
78cm3. Find the density of the stone

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ANSWER = 3gcm-3

3. Calculate the mass of air in a room of floor dimensions 10m x 12m and a height of 4m if the density of air
is 1.26kg/m3

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ANSWER = 605kg

4. A solution made of 250g of water and 50g of salt had a volume of 250cm 3. Calculate the density of the
solution
..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ANSWER = 1200kgm-3

RELATIVE DENSITY
When we talk of relative density of a substance, we are comparing the density of that substance with the density
of water. Hence we define relative density as follows

 Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water

R.D = Density of substance

Density of water

 Relative density is also defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance to mass of equal volume of water
R.D = Mass/volume of substance
Mass of water/volume of water
Since volume of substance is the same as volume of water, the above relation becomes

Relative density = Mass of substance

Mass of water

Now since mass of a body or substance is proportional to its weight, we may have also define relative density of a
substance as

 The ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of equal volume of water

R .D = Weight of substance
Weight of equal volume of water

Relative density has no units. It is simply a number of or a ratio since it is a ratio of two densities or two masses
or two weights.

Other relations for relative density

R. D = Upthrust in fluid
Upthrust in liquid

Upthrust in liquid = weight of substance in air – weight of substance in water

Upthrust in water = weight of substance in air – weight of substance in water

MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE DENSITIES

The relative densities of liquid and insoluble solids in powdered forms such as sand, flour, gari and lead shots are
usually measured or determined using the relative density bottle

 The density bottle has a ground glass stopper

 The stopper has a fine hole through it
 The fine hole enables excess liquid rise through it and runs down the outside when it is filled and the
stopper inserted
 If the density bottle is used with the same liquid level at the top of the hole, it will always contain the
same volume of whatever liquid that is put in, provided the temperature remains constant

HOW TO MEASURE RELATIVE DENSITY OF LIQUID

Examples of liquids are: salt solution, kerosene, petrol, paraffin oil, methylated spirit and alcohol
When measuring the relative density of liquid, the following steps are to be followed

 Weigh the relative density bottle together with stopper when empty on a chemical or beam balance and
the mass M1 denoted
 Fill the bottle with the liquid (e.g. salt solution), stopper it and wipe the outside of bottle of any liquid
that might have come through the hole of stopper to the outside of the bottle
 Weigh the bottle fill with the liquid and record the mass, M2
 Empty the bottle of the liquid, rinse it well with water, fill it with water, stopper it and clean or wipe off
any water on the outside
 Weigh the bottle filled with water and record the mass, M3
Relative density is calculated as below
Mass of empty bottle = M1g
Mass of bottle full of liquid = M2 g
Mass of bottle full of water = M3 g
 Mass of liquid = (M2 – M1) g
Mass of water = (M3 – M1) g

R.D of liquid = Mass of liquid = M2 – M 1

Mass of water M3 – M 1

NOTE:
In determination of relative density of a liquid using relative density bottle, the following precautions are
necessary
1. The outside of the bottle must be wipe clean of any liquid before weighing
2. The bottle should not be held in a warm hand because some of the liquids may lost through expansion

HOW TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE DENSITY OF AN IRREGULAR

SOLID E.G STONE OR WOOD

This is done without using relative density bottle but with an overflow can also called Eureka can
The relative density of an irregular solid such as a stone, a piece of wood or a piece of metal can also be
determined as follows
 Weigh the irregular solid and record its mass, M1
 Fill an overflow or eureka can with water until it overflows and leave it till no more overflows
 Measure and record the mass of an empty beaker, M2
 Place the empty beaker below the spout of the overflow can
 Tie the irregular solid with a thread and lower gently the solid into the water in the overflow can until the
solid is completely immersed in water
 Weigh the beaker together with water that overflows into it after insertion/lowering of stone into the
water and record the mass, M3
Relative density of irregular solid is calculated as follows
Mass of solid = M1
Mass of empty beaker = M2
Mass of beaker and water = M3
Mass of equal volume of water = M3 - M2

Relative density = Mass of solid = M1

Mass of equal volume of water M3 - M 2

NOTE: relative densities are accurate measurement of densities

Calculations of density from relative density

R .D = Density of a substance
Density of liquid

[Density of substance] = [Relative density of substance] x [Density of water]

Now if the relative density of a substance is 0.8 and the density of water is 1gcm -3, then
Density of substance = 0.8 x 1gcm-3 = 0.8gcm-3
Similarly, if the liquid has a relative density of 12.2 and the density of water is 1.0 x 10 kgm -3, then the density of
the liquid =12.2 x 1.0 x 103 kgm-3 = 12200kgm-3

Density of water is usually expressed as 1gcm-3

1gcm-3 = 1000kgm-3 = 1.0 X 103kgm-3

Advantages of using relative density bottle to determine the density of a substance

1. When using a density bottle only mass measurements are involved. No volume measurements
2. Mass measurements have fairly high degree of accuracy than volume measurements
3. Therefore a good and more accurate value can be obtained from relative density and hence the density of
the liquid by this method

Differences between density and relative density

Density Relative density

Involves the ratio of mass and volume of substance Involves the mass of substances compared with
mass of equal volume of water (ratio of mass to
volume) of ratio of masses or ratio of densities

It is a measured quantity It is a comparison between two measured

quantities

Has units (kgm-3) Has no units

It does not make any reference to water It makes reference to water

It involves only one substance It involves two substances

Low degree of accuracy in its measurements High degree of accuracy in its measurements
because of errors in volume measurement

Worked examples

1. A hydrometer sank in alcohol to a depth of 0.8, calculate the density of the alcohol
(Density of water is 1000kgm3)
Solution
R.D of alcohol = 0.8
 Relative density = Density of substance
Density of water
0.8 = density of substance
1000kgm3
Density of substance = 0.8 x 1000kgm3 = 800kgm3

2. A solid of mass 450kg has a volume of 250cm3. Calculate the relative density of the solid
Density of water = 1000kgm-3 (WASSSCE NOV 2012)

Solution
Density = Mass = 450kg = 1800kgm-3
Volume 0.25
Relative density of solid = Density of solid = 1800 = 1.8
Density of water 1000

3. A body weighs 35N in air, 21N in water and 17N in kerosene. Calculate the loss in weight of a body in
(a)water (b)kerosene
Solution
(a) Water
Weight of substance in air – weight of substance in water
35N – 21N = 14N
(b) Kerosene
Weight of substance in air – weight of substance in kerosene
35N- 17 = 18N

4. A stone weigh 2.5N in air, 1.5N in water and 1.7N in kerosene. Determine the relative density of
kerosene (WASSSCE NOV 2009)
Solution
R.D of kerosene = Upthrust of kerosene
Upthrust in water

= weight of stone in air – weight of stone in kerosene

Weight of stone in air – weight of stone in water
= 2.5 – 1.7 = 0.8
2.5 – 1.5

4. An empty relative density bottle weighs 40g. The bottle weighs 80g when filled with methylated spirit and 90g
when filled with water. Find the density of methylated spirit
(Density of water = 1000kgm-3)

Solution

R.D of methylated spirit = Mass of methylated spirit = 80 – 40 = 0.8

Mass of equal volume of water 90 – 40
R.D of methylated spirit = Density of methylated spirit
Density of water
0.8 = Density of methylated spirit
1000kgm-3
Density of methylated spirit = 0.8 x 1000 = 800kgm-3

5. A liquid has a relative density of 12.2. calculate its density (density of water is 1.0 x 10 3kg/m

6. (a) Define density and relative density

(b) State the differences between density and relative density

7. Describe how you would determine the density of a sample of soil in the laboratory

8. Derive the formula for finding

(a) The power of a machine
(b) Potential difference across a conductor
9. Name the instruments you would use to measure each of the following
(a) Thickness of a sheet of metal
(b) Diameter of ball bearing
(c) Length of match box
(d) Diameter of wire or a thin copper wire
10. Match the correct S.I unit in B to their respective quantity in A
A B
Length second
Electric current ampere
Time kilogram
Mass kelvin
Luminous intensity metre candela
Thermodynamic temperature metre