LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
BIOLOGY - branch of Science that deals with study
of life.
Bios – life
Logos - study
BIOLOGY deals with structures, functions, and
relationships of living things and their environment
Major Divisions of Biological Sciences Biology
Microbiology - microorganisms
Zoology- animals
Botany- plants
IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
• Helps to understand the functions and reactions
of the body
• Helps in understanding how animals survive,
respond, and interact in the environment
• People learn ways to fight and prevent the spread
of diseases caused by agents of infection.
• Helps respond to the demands of an increasing
human population.
PROPERTIES OF LIFE
ORDER OR ORGANIZATION
SENSITIVITY OR RESPONSE TO STIMULI
• Organisms respond to diverse stimuli.
• Ex: Plants can grow toward a source of light,
climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch
REPRODUCTION
• Single-celled organisms reproduce by first
duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally
as the cell prepares to form two new cells.
• Multicellular organisms often produce specialized
reproductive germ line cells that give rise to
gametes that eventually will form new individuals.
REGULATION
• Internal functions regulated in an organism are
nutrient transport and specific functions, such as
carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing
wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and
cooling the body.
HOMEOSTASIS
• Cells need to have appropriate conditions such as
proper temperature, pH, and appropriate
concentration of diverse chemicals.
• Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions
within a narrow range almost constantly, despite
environmental changes through homeostasis.
• Homeostasis – ability of an organism to maintain
constant internal conditions.
ENERGY PROCESSING
• All organisms use a source of energy for their
metabolic activities.
• Energy is the ability of organisms to do work that
allows them to move.
NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND PROCESSING
• All living organisms need to feed in order to
survive, grow, and reproduce.
• Nutrition – process by which organisms acquire
food
 LESSON 2: CELL THEORY
Early beliefs about the origin of Life
 Theory of Spontaneous Generation or
Abiogenesis
 It is the idea that life originates from non-
living matter.
 The idea being proposed by Aristotle in the
fourth century until seventeenth century.
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OR
ABIOGENESIS
 Flies can grow from cattle manure
 Fish from mud of previously dried lakes
 Lice from sweat
Experiments conducted to prove contradicting
beliefs to explain how life came about;
FRANCESCO REDI- Italian physician
In 1668, conducted experiment to reject
abiogenesis using maggots that arose from
decaying meat.
REDI’S EXPERIMENT
• Experimental Group: Covered jars with meat
= NO maggots
• Control Group: Meat in uncovered jars = maggots
• Conclusion: Life arose from living matter such as
maggots from eggs of flies and not from
spontaneous generation in the meat.
JOHN NEEDHAM
 English priest
 In 1748, he challenged Redi‟s experiment.
 His experiment tested whether or not
microorganisms can appear spontaneously
after boiling.
JOHN NEEDHAM’ EXPERIMENT
• He placed a solution of boiled mutton broth in a
container and heated it.
• After several days, he observed that the broth
turned cloudy due to microorganisms.
• Conclusion: Life in the broth was caused by
spontaneous generation.
LAZZARO SPALLANZANI
• Italian scientist. In 1767, he challenged
Needham‟s experiment.
•He boiled a broth containing meat and vegetables
placed in clean glass container.
LAZZARO SPALLANZANI’S EXPERIMENT
 Several days later, the open container was
filled with a population of microorganisms,
while the sealed container remained sterile.
 Conclusion: Life occurred from something
that entered the unsealed flask and that it
was the
 Control Group: Boiled meat broth, unsealed
flask=microorganisms.
 Experimental Group: Boiled meat broth and
sealed it in flasks = no microorganisms
 Conclusion: Only had presence of
microorganisms when they had access to
the broth.
  He also observed blood cells from fish,
birds, frogs, dogs, and humans
 Therefore, it was known that cells are found
in animals as well as plants

19TH CENTURY ADVANCEMENT

 Much doubt existed around Spontaneous

Generation
 Conclusively disproved by Louis Pasteur

DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY

1838- German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden,

concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
LOUIS PASTEUR
1839- German physiologist, Theodor Schwann,
• It was only in 1861, when he conducted an
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all
experiment that most scientists were convinced that
animal tissues are composed of cells.
abiogenesis does not occur.
1858- Rudolf Virchow, German physician, after
• He designed an experiment to test the idea that a
extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded
vital element from air was necessary for life to
that cells must arise from preexisting cells.
occur.
THE CELL THEORY COMPLETE
LOUIS PASTUER’S EXPERIMENT
• The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were
• He boiled sugar solution with yeast in flasks with
now complete:
long neck.
• 1. All organisms are composed of one or more
Conclusion: Spontaneous generation was
cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
disproved, and biogenesis theory was
substantiated. Contamination came from other • 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
microorganisms, not “air”. things. (Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
DISCOVERY OF CELLS • 3. All cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Discovery of Cells
MODERN CELL THEORY
 1665- English Scientist, Robert Hooke,
discovered cells while looking at a thin slice • Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in
of cork. addition to the original Cell Theory:
 He described the cells as tiny boxes or a
honeycomb • The cell contains hereditary information(DNA)
 He thought that cells only existed in plants which is passed on from cell to cell during cell
and fungi division.

ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK • All cells are basically the same in chemical
composition and metabolic activities.
 1673- Used a handmade microscope to
observe pond scum & discovered single- • All basic chemical & physiological functions are
celled organisms carried out inside the cells.(movement,
 He called them “animalcules” digestion,etc)
• Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-
cellular structures within the cell (organelles,
nucleus, and plasma membrane)
LESSON 3: Introduction to the Light
Microscope
The MICROSCOPE has become one of the most
recognizable symbols of science.
Starting with use of a simple lens in ancient times,
to the first compound microscope around 1590, and
up to the microscopes you are using in 7th grade
life science, the microscope has allowed scientists
to make discoveries about the “invisible world.”
What is the purpose of a microscope?
• To magnify or enlarge the image of tiny objects.
• The microscopes we will use this year in science
can magnify objects 40 times, 100 times, and 400
times the size of the object.
EYEPIECE
 Also known as the ocular
 Contains the first lens you look through -
usually a magnification of 10x
 Located on the top of the body tube
OBJECTIVE LENSES
• Used in combination with the eyepiece to
provide a range of magnification
• Magnification ranges from 40x to 400x
• Located on the nosepiece at the bottom of
the body tube
NOSEPIECE
• Holds the objective lenses
• Rotates to enable magnification
• Located at the bottom of the body tube
ARM
• Supports the upper parts of the microscope
• Used to carry the microscope
• When carrying a microscope, always have
one hand on the arm and one hand on the
base. Use two hands!!
BASE
• Supports the whole microscope
• Used to carry the microscope
• When carrying a microscope, always have
one hand on the arm and one hand on the
base.
STAGE
• Supports the slide
• The slide contains the specimen or object
that you are viewing with the microscope.
STAGE CLIP
• Helps to hold the slide in place
• Usually, one on each side of the hole (stage
opening) = 2 stage clips
• The stage opening allows light to pass from
the light source to the lenses.
LIGHT SOURCE
• Provides light necessary for viewing the
specimen
• Usually either a mirror or illuminator
• Sends light through the stage opening to the
diaphragm
DIAPHRAGM
• Wheel or lever located below the stage
opening
• Regulates the amount of light that can enter
the lenses
• May need to be adjusted based on the
thickness of the specimen being studied
COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB
• Raises and lowers the stage or objective
lenses
• Used only when focusing the low power (4x)
objective lens
FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB
• Raises and lowers the stage or objective
lenses a small distance for exact focusing
• Used when focusing the medium power
(10x) and high power (40x) objective lenses
LESSON 4 Types of Cells, Cell Organelles and
Functions
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
A EUKARYOTE is any organism whose cells
contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed
within membranes.
PROKARYOTES are unicellular organisms that
lack organelles or other internal membrane- bound
structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus,
but, instead, generally have a single chromosome:
a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in
an area of the cell called the nucleoid.
FLAGELLUM: Long, whip-like protrusion that aids
cellular locomotion.
PILI (PILUS SINGULAR): Hair-like structures on
the surface of the cell that attach to other bacterial
cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria
attach to surfaces.
PLASMIDS: Plasmids are gene carrying, circular
DNA structures that are not involved in
reproduction.
CELL MEMBRANE: Surrounds the cell's
cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in
and out of the cell.
CELL WALL: Outer covering of most cells that
protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape.
CYTOPLASM: A gel-like substance composed
mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts,
cell components, and various organic molecules.
RIBOSOME: Cell structures responsible for protein
production.
NUCLEOID: Area of the cytoplasm that contains
the single bacterial DNA molecule.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells
small cells (< 5 mm) larger cells (> 10 mm)

no nucleus or any always have nucleus

membrane-bound and other membrane-
organelles bound organelles

DNA is circular, without DNA is circular, without

proteins proteins

ribosomes are small ribosomes are large

(70S) (80S)

no cytoskeleton always has a

cytoskeleton

cell division is by cell division is by

Parts and Functions of Prokaryotic cell
binary fission mitosis or meiosis
CAPSULE: Found in some bacterial cells, this
reproduction is always reproduction is always
additional outer covering protects the cell when it is
asexual asexual
engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining
moisture, and helps the cell adhere to surfaces and
nutrients.
SPECIFIC TYPES OF CELLS ORGANELLES: STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Prokaryote - no organelles CELL/PLASMA MEMBRANE

Structure: Phospholipid bilayer
Eukaryotes – organelles Function: Controls what enters & exits the
CELL SIZE COMPARISON cell. - Boundary of the cell

Bacterial cell NUCLEUS

Function: Controls everything in the cell
Most bacteria -10 microns Structure: Contains DNA/chromosomes
Eukaryotic cells -100 microns
Enclosed by a porous double membrane
ORGANELLES called the nuclear membrane.
Usually, the easiest organelle to see under
They‟re like mini-organs! a microscope usually, one per cell.

• Organelles do the work of cells

NUCLEOLUS
– each structure has a job to do Function: Takes RNA and makes ribosomes
Structure: Dense region inside the nucleus
• keeps the cell alive; keeps you alive
RIBOSOMES
1. Cells need power!
Function: Links together amino acids to
ATP make proteins (that means enzymes too!)
Structure: Tiny organelles made of
• Making energy proteins & RNA. Found on Rough ER

• To fuel daily life & growth, the cell must… ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• take in food & digest it (ER)
• take in oxygen (O2) Function: Transport, "intracellular
• make ATP highway“. Site of protein synthesis; makes
• remove waste more ER
– organelles that do this work… Structure: Thin folded membranes that are
connected together. HAS ribosomes
• cell membrane
• lysosomes VESICLE
• vacuoles & vesicles Membrane - bound containers that carry
• mitochondria substances throughout the cell

CELL ORGANELLES GOLGI APPARATUS/BODY/COMPLEX

• Organelle= “little organ”
• Found only inside eukaryotic cells
• All the stuff in between the organelles is
cytosol
• Everything in a cell except the nucleus is
cytoplasm
Function: Checks, modifies & packages
proteins
Structure: Closely layered stacks of
Membrane enclosed discs
LYSOSOME
Function: Breaks down food, waste &
damaged cell parts all within the cell
Structure: Contains enzymes; membrane
bound
PEROXISOME
Function: Protects cell from toxins,
especially H2O
Structure: Contains enzymes; membrane
Bound O2
VACUOLE
Function: stores materials for cell
Structure: fluid filled sacs; small in animal
cells; large in plant cells,
PLASTIDS
Structure: 3 different types only
Function: Storage sacs in plant cells
PLASTIDS
1. Leucoplast – stores starch in roots &
stems
2. Chromoplast – stores the orange/yellow
pigment
3 .Chloroplast- stores the green pigment/
site of photosynthesis
CHLOROPLAST
Function: Uses sunlight to create food,
photosynthesis (only found in green plants
& algae)
Structure: 3 membranes; bean shaped;
contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
MITOCHONDRIA
Function: Supplies energy to the cell; site of
cellular respiration; „powerhouse‟ of cell
Structure: Bean shaped; 2 membranes; has
own DNA & ribosomes
CHLOROPLAST & MITOCHONDRIA
Both have: more than 1 membrane
„Powerhouse‟ of their cells
Contain their own DNA
Reproduce independently of the cell
Were they once free-living prokaryotic
cells?!
CYTOPLASM/CYTOSOL
Function: Hold organelles in place & site for
chemical reactions
Structure: Jelly – like substance between
the area of the nucleus & cell membrane
CYTOSKELETON
Function: Supports & shapes the cell
Structure: A network of protein filaments
(microtubules, microfilaments)
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(ER)
Function: Transport, "intracellular highway“.
Also makes lipids; breaks down toxins such
as drugs/alcohol
Structure: Thin folded membranes that are
connected together. No ribosomes
CENTROSOME/CENTRIOLES
Function: Helps the cell divide
Structure: Small region of cytoplasm, made
up of microtubules; pair of centrioles
FLAGELLUM
(Flagella =plural)
Tail used for movement
CILIUM
(Cilia = plural)
Tiny hair-like projections on cell exterior
used
For movement and gathering food
LESSON 5: SPECIALIZED CELLS
SPECIALIZED CELLS
• Plants and animals contain many cells. In a
many-celled (multicellular) organism the
cells are often quite different from each
other and are specialized to perform specific
functions.
• cells that have a particular adaptation to
perform a special task
This specialization starts with STEM CELLS, a
special type of cell that has the potential to
develop into many different cell types during
development.
Arrangement
• Least Complex
• Cells
• Tissues
 • Organs WHITE BLOOD CELL
• Organ Systems
• Organisms
• Most Complex

EXAMPLES OF ANIMAL SPECIALIZED CELLS

1. Red Blood Cell

2. White blood Cell and its types
3. Ciliated Epithelial Cell
4. Nerve Cell
5. Muscle Cell
6. Sperm Cell (gamete cell)
 found in the blood
7. Ovum Cell (gamete cell)
 protects us from bacteria or viruses
RED BLOOD CELL
ADAPTATION OF WHITE BLOOD CELL

• There are 2 types of white blood cells:

LYMPHOCYTES: have large nuclei, produce

antibodies to kill bacteria.

PHAGOCYTES: have lobed nuclei; engulf bacteria

because the nucleus allows it to change its shape.

• found in the blood

• Our blood is made up of a liquid part.
The RBCs are found in this liquid part of
the blood.

ADAPTATION OF RED BLOOD CELL

 It has the biconcave disc-shape for more

surface area in exchanging gases.
 It has no nucleus in its cytoplasm to have
more space for the hemoglobin. CILIATED EPITHELIAL CELLS

FUNCTION OF RED BLOOD CELL

 It carries the oxygen.

 It makes the blood red because it has
hemoglobin.
CILIATED EPITHELIAL CELLS
 Trap any dust or bacteria in the air we
breathe.
 Smoking stops the ciliated epithelial cells
from working. If it stopped it may effect on
our lungs.
 Found in the trachea, bronchi and oviducts.
ADAPTATION OF CILIATED EPITHELIAL CELLS
• It has cilium which is produced by the
cytoplasm.
• Cilia are a thin hair like structure.
FUNCTION OF THE CILIATED EPITHELIAL
CELLS
• Mucus traps the dust particles, then the cilia
beats in a rhythm to move this mucus out of
the body.
• It helps the ovum to move.
MUSCLE CELLS
allow our bodies to move AND found in muscular
system
ADAPTATION OF THE MUSCLE CELL
• It is long. It has bands of proteins.
• The muscle cells are arranged in fibers
that help it to run along the length of the
muscle.
Types of Muscle Cells:
• Smooth Muscles
• Cardiac Muscles
• Skeletal Muscles
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• For movement
• They are usually attached to bones.
• Skeletal muscles are voluntary. That
means we are in control of moving
them.
• They also use a lot of ATP or energy.
There are a lot of mitochondria found
here.
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• found only in the heart
• The heart is a muscle. It never stops.
• Involuntary muscle
• This also means that it has a lot of
mitochondria as well. It needs a lot of
ATP.
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Involuntary muscle
• Stomach, blood vessels, and intestines
contain smooth muscle cells.
• These cells also have a lot of
mitochondria. They need a lot of ATP as
well.
FUNCTION OF MUSCLE CELLS
• contract and relaxes which helps the muscle to
move.
NERVE CELLS
Send the impulses to accomplish a task or perceive
stimuli. Found in the nervous system
ADAPTATION OF NERVE CELLS FUNCTION OF SPERM CELL

• Long and branched • It carries the genetic information of the male

parent.
FUNCTION OF NERVE CELLS OR NEURONS
• It combines with the egg cell to form a new
• carries the impulses embryo.

• The way it is branched allows the impulses to be

EGG CELL OR OVUM\
conducted and co-ordinated. It carries the impulses
long distances without getting interrupted.

• Neurons carry electrical impulses from your body

to your brain. They are very specialized.

• do not regenerate them.

• Impulses travel between neurons at the synapse.

The long tails of the cells are called axons and the
little extensions on the main cell body are called
dendrites. Neurons do have a nucleus.

Reproductive cell in females

SPERM CELLS
Found in female reproductive system

ADAPTATION OF OVUM

Male reproductive cell
Found in male reproductive system
ADAPTATION OF THE SPERM CELL
• It is long and has a neck, head and a tail.
• Designed to be fertilized
• cytoplasm acts as the stored food for
developing embryo
• An egg cell is large and bulky.
• Contains yolk which provides a large food
store for the new cell being formed.
FUNCTION OF OVUM
• It provides food for the growing embryo.
• It stores the genetic information of the
female part.

• The head produces enzymes to enter to the ovum

so fertilization can take place. EXAMPLES OF PLANT SPECIALIZED CELLS

• The neck has lots of mitochondria which provide it • Root hair cell
with the energy it needs. • palisade cell
• xylem vessel/cell
• The tail pushes side to side to push the cell
forward.
 ROOT HAIR CELL • Packed with chloroplasts to help make plant
food.

ADAPTATION OF PALISADE CELLS

• It has a large surface area.

• It has lots of chloroplasts.
• It has an oblong shape.

FUNCTION OF PALISADE CELLS

Absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis

Thin cell wall makes it easy for minerals to pass
through.

Has a large surface which helps it to absorb water XYLEM CELL

and minerals.

Found in a plant root.

ADAPTATION OF ROOT HAIR CELL

• It is a thin thread like structure.

• It is an elongated cell.
• It has no chloroplasts.
• It has many mitochondria, that some water
and minerals are absorbed actively.

FUNCTION OF ROOT HAIR CELL

• It absorbs some water and minerals actively. Found in a plant (the stem)

Join together to form xylem tubes that carry water

from roots to leaves of plants
PALISADE CELL
ADAPTATION OF XYLEM CELL

• It is long, thin hollow tube for uninterrupted

flow of water.
• The vessels are formed of column of cells
with no end walls, nucleus and cytoplasm.

FUNCTION OF XYLEM CELL

• helps to transport water and provide support.

• Designed for Photosynthesis

• Found in the top of a leaf
• Tall and has a large surface area to absorb
water and minerals.
WHY BE MULTICELLULAR

• Multicellular organisms can grow much

larger than single celled organisms and still
be efficient.
• Multicellular organisms are much more
INTERPHASE
complex because they have various cell
types that can perform specialized
functions. (a division of labor)
• Survival of the organism is not dependent
on just one cell.
LESSON 7: CELL CYCLE
1. SOMATIC CELLS
• the preparatory stage for mitosis not the
resting for the cell does not rest
• the nucleus is clearly visible with one or
more distinct nucleoli
• chromosomes appear as irregular-granular
form, thus cannot be recognized
• consists of three subdivisions: first growth
period (G1), synthesis period (S), and
second growth period (G2)

• refer to all body cells except the sex cells G1 PERIOD (PRE-SYNTHESIS INTERPHASE)
• contain diploid (2n) number of
chromosomes • growth of the cell
• undergo mitosis • RNA and protein synthesis take place
• building of new protoplasm and cytoplasmic
2. SEX CELLS organelles
• enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis are
• refer to the gametes, the sperm cell of the synthesized
male and the egg cell of the female
• contain haploid number (n) of chromosomes S PERIOD (SYNTHESIS PHASE)
• undergo meiosis
• most critical period
CELL CYCLE • DNA synthesis and replication take place
• RNA and protein synthesis continue
• the cyclical process of growth and mitosis
• synthesis of histones and other proteins
• consist of four phases: three stages of necessary to maintain DNA synthesis occur
interphase (G1, S and G2) and mitotic
• centriole reproduction (in animal cell) begins
phase
G2 PERIOD (POST-SYNTHESIS INTERPHASE)

• completion of DNA synthesis and replication

• continuation of RNA and protein synthesis
• prepares the cell to undergo mitosis

MITOSIS
• (Greek word mitos, thread)
• somatic cell division
• a process that produces two daughter cells
with the same quantity and quality of
chromosomes as the parent cell
• also called duplication division
• refers to the division of the nucleus
(karyokinesis)
• quickly followed by the division of the
cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
PROPHASE
• each chromosome is visible as two
chromatids held together by the centromere
• chromosomes move toward the equator of
the cell
• centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell
• nucleolus no longer visible
• nuclear membrane start to disappear
• mitotic apparatus (spindle fibers) are nearly
formed
METAPHASE
• double-stranded chromosomes are aligned
at the equator of the cell
• Centromeres of each chromosome are
attached to the spindle fibers.
• nuclear membrane completely disappeared
ANAPHASE
• the phase of migration
• centromere of each chromosome divide
• two sets of single-stranded chromatids
separate move towards opposite pole of the
cell
• cytokinesis begins
TELOPHASE
• the phase of reconstruction
• daughter chromosomes finally reach the
opposite of the cell
• chromosomes begin to become longer,
thinner,
• chromosomes begin to become longer,
thinner, and less distinct
• centrioles are replicated
• nucleolus reappears
• new nuclear membranes form
• mitotic apparatus disappears
• cytokinesis completed resulting into two
daughter cells with the same quantity and
quality of chromosomes as the parent cell
MEIOSIS
• sex cell division
• a process that produced four daughter cells
with haploid number of chromosomes as the
parent cell
• also called reduction division
• Involves two successive divisions-meiosis I
and meiosis II
MEIOSIS I
• results in reducing the number of
chromosomes
• accompanied by cytokinesis
– Prophase I
 – Metaphase I
– Anaphase I
– Telophase I

INTERPHASE I

• Chromosomes duplicate
• Chromatin – the substance that forms
chromosomes and contains DNA, RNA, and
various proteins

ANAPHASE I

• Pairs of homologous chromosomes split up

PROPHASE I

• Homologous chromosomes pair and exchange

segments

• Synapsis – pairing of homologs to form tetrads

• Chiasma – crossing point of chromosome parts

TELOPHASE I

• Two haploid cells form; chromosomes are still

double

METAPHASE I

• Tetrads line up

• Tetrad - a group of four chromosomes in a diploid

cell
 PROPHASE II

• The dyads becomes thicker and shorter

METAPHASE II

• The centromeres of each dyad are directed

to the equator of the cell
• Then the centromeres divide

ANAPHASE II

• single stranded chromosomes (monads) separate

and migrate towards the opposite poles of the cell

MEIOSIS II

• similar to the events of mitosis

• follows interkinesis
• no chromosomes replication between
meiosis I and meiosis II TELOPHASE II
– Prophase II • the monads reach the poles of the cell
– Metaphase II • new nuclear membranes may form
– Anaphase II
– Telophase II
 • cytokinesis occurs resulting daughter cells
with the same haploid number of
chromosomes
• the chromosomes uncoil and become
thinner and invisible again.
POLAR BODY - cell produced in development of
ovum: a cell with a nucleus but little cytoplasm that
is produced along with an oocyte, and later

SPERMATOGONIUM – primitive male reproductive

cell: a cell in the male testes that develops and
divides to form spermatocytes. These subsequently
divide to form spermatids, from which spermatozoa
finally develop.

SPERMATOCYTE – immature male cell: a cell that

develops from a spermatogonium.

SPERMATID - cell that becomes spermatozoon: a

cell that, with three others, forms from a
spermatocyte and develops into a spermatozoon

SPERMATOZOON - male reproductive cell: a male

reproductive cell gamete that has an oval head with
a nucleus, a short neck, and a tail by which it
moves to find and fertilize an ovum

OOGONIUM - cell in ovary: a cell in the ovary that

develops into an oocyte

OOCYTE - immature female reproductive cell: a

cell that develops into a female reproductive cell
ovum

OOTID - immature egg cell: the stage in the

development of an egg cell that becomes the
mature ovum immediately prior to fertilization. It is a
haploid cell formed by division of the secondary
oocyte

OVUM - female reproductive cell: a female

reproductive cell