CELLS

Lecture Outline

• Evolution of cell
• Basic properties and functions of cells
How did cells
arise?
 Timescale of Evolution

• Speculation  Cells evolved from some type of pre-cellular life

form which is evolved from non-living organic materials present
in the primordial seas
• All living organisms have evolved from a single, common
ancestral cell (> 3 billion years ago)
 Timescale of Evolution

https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/Russell/
 Timescale of Evolution

• In 1920s, simple organic molecules were thought to

spontaneously polymerize into macromolecules
• In 1950s, spontaneous formation of organic molecules was first
demonstrated experimentally by Stanley Miller in the presence of
water  Formed variety organic molecules
• In 1980s, period of evolution  RNA world
• The first cell is presumed to have arisen by the enclosure of self-
replicating RNA in a membrane composed of phospholipids
• Bacterial cell in human intestinal tract VS a cell that lines the
intestinal tract  Varies greatly
 Yet, both share many features (Eg. Common genetic code, plasma
membrane, ribosomes)
Timescale of Evolution

Endosymbiotic Theory
 Cell Theory

1. Cell is the basic unit of life that can accomplish all life’s
functions. Anything smaller than a cell is not alive by
definition
• Cell membrane that keeps the chemical reactions of life together
• At least one chromosome, composed of genetic material
• Cytoplasm, the fluid inside the cells where all chemical processes
of life occur

2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells

3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells by division
4. All cells, at some point in their life cycle, contain
the genetic material for the entire organism
 What are the
fundamental
properties/functions
of cell?
 Fundamental Properties of Cell

1. Cells are highly complex and organized

2. Cells possess a genetic program and the means to use it
3. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves
4. Cells acquire and utilize energy
5. Cells carry out a variety of chemical reactions
6. Cells engage in mechanical activities
7. Cells are able to respond to stimuli
8. Cells are capable of self-regulation
9. Cells evolve
 Cells are Highly Complex and Organized

• Atoms  Small-sized molecules  Giant polymers 

Complexes  Subcellular organelles  Cell
• The more complex a structure  The greater the number
of parts that must be in their proper place  The less
tolerance of errors in nature and interactions of the parts
 The more regulation or control that must be present to
maintain the system  Highly precise cellular activities
 Eg. DNA duplication during cell division  Error rate of less than 1
mistake for every ten million nucleotides incorporated  Error is
rectified by efficient repair mechanism

• Imagine if you observe an intestinal epithelial cell under

microscope, what would you see?
 Cells are Highly Complex and Organized

Consistent array
of proteins,
including an
electrically
powered ATP-
Microvilli  synthesizing
Long machine (ball on
projections a stick structure)
that facilitate
nutrients
absorption
Defined pattern
of internal
membranes
Actin (protein)
 Filamentous
skeleton
allowing the
outward Mitochondria 
projection Provide energy
from apical cell for cellular
surface processes
Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use It

• Human genetic program  Amount of information fills

million of pages with text
• Archive of genetic information  Fixed set of DNA
molecules  Genes collection  Sets of chromosomes
• Genes  Storage lockers for
information  Blueprints to
construct cellular structures,
run cellular activities and
duplicating themselves
(transmit their genetic
information)
 Cells are Capable of Producing More of Themselves

• Cells reproduce by cellular division Mitosis

process
• Contents (Genetic materials) of a
mother cell are duplicated and
distributed into two daughter cells 
Each daughter cell receives a complete Meiosis
and equal share of genetic information
(Mitosis)
• For certain cases (Eg. gametes) 
Unequal distribution  One daughter
cell retains most cytoplasm while
receiving only half genetic material
(Meiosis)
 Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy
• All biological processes require input of energy
• For animal cells, energy is packaged in the form of sugar
(glucose)
• Glucose circulates throughout the body in the blood 
Deliver chemical energy to all cells
• In the cell, glucose is
broken down into ATP and
stored for energy-
requiring cellular activities
 Eg. The act of breaking
down and rebuilding
macromolecules and
organelles
 Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions

• Almost all chemical

changes that take
place in cells require
enzymes
• Enzymes  Proteins
that facilitate the rate
at which a chemical
reaction occurs
• Sum total of chemical
reactions in a cell 
Cell’s metabolism
 Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities

• Cells  Active sites with biological activities

 Materials transported from place to place
 Structures are assembled and disassembled
 Entire cell moves from one site to another

• Importance of mechanical system for dynamic changes

• Initiated by changes in the shape of motor proteins (Eg.
Kinesin, dynein, myosin)
 Cells are Able to Respond to Stimuli

• Cells within multicellular organisms (Eg. Plant or animal)

respond to stimuli less obviously
 Eg. Plant moves toward the source of sunlight (for photosynthesis)

• Presence of receptors
 Interact with substances in the environment (hormones, growth
factors, etc)
 Provide a pathway whereby the stimuli could cause a specific
response in the cell Stimuli

 Eg. Altering their metabolic activities,

movement, death
Cells are Able to Respond to Stimuli
 Cells are Capable of Self-regulation

• Self-regulation  Feedback circuits

activated to return the cell to its
normal/appropriate state during
fluctuations
 Important for maintenance of a complex
system

• Failure of cell regulatory mechanism

 Cellular dysfunction
• Eg. Cells failed to correct the errors
occurred during DNA replication 
DNA mutation  Transformation into
cancer cells
 Cells Evolve

• Evolution is not an event of the past, but an ongoing

process that continuously modifies the properties of cells
 Yet to appear in the organisms