Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management

How cosmopolitan are Indian consumers?: a study on fashion clothing involvement

Arpita Khare
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Arpita Khare , (2014),"How cosmopolitan are Indian consumers?: a study on fashion clothing involvement",
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 18 Iss 4 pp. 431 - 451
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How
How cosmopolitan are Indian cosmopolitan
consumers?: a study on fashion are Indian
consumers?
clothing involvement
Arpita Khare 431
Indian Institute of Management, Rohtak, India
Received 2 May 2013
Revised 9 August 2013
Abstract Accepted 15 August 2013
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine affect of cosmopolitanism and consumers’
susceptibility to interpersonal influence on Indian consumers’ fashion clothing involvement. Moderating
effect of demographics was studied.
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Design/methodology/approach – Survey technique through self-administered questionnaire was

used for data collection in both metropolitan and non-metropolitan cities in India.
Findings – Utilitarian, value expressive factors of normative influence and cosmopolitanism
influence Indian consumers’ fashion clothing involvement. Type of city, income, and education
moderated influence of normative values and cosmopolitanism on fashion clothing involvement.
Research limitations/implications – One of the major limitations of current research was that it
had a large number of respondents in the age group of 18-40 years. Future research can attempt to
reduce age biasness.
Practical implications – The findings can prove helpful to international apparel brands marketing
luxury and fashion clothing in India. However, since conformance to social norms was important for
Indians, clothing manufacturers should use reference groups, opinion leaders, and celebrities to
generate awareness. A blend of global and local lifestyle should be used. International luxury brands
can customize their products to combine ethnic tastes.
Originality/value – Fashion clothing market promises immense growth opportunities in India.
There is limited research to examine influence cosmopolitanism on Indian consumers’ consumption
behaviour. Knowledge about influence of global lifestyle, brands, mass media, and services on Indian
consumers’ behaviour can help in targeting them effectively.
Keywords Consumer behaviour, Fashion, India, Involvement
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Indian government’s policy of allowing foreign direct investment in multi-brand
retailing has presented global luxury brands with immense opportunities (Amed,
2013). The economic and social trends suggest lucrative growth opportunities for
foreign luxury clothing brands. Most international global clothing brands are planning
to open their stores in metropolitan cities where they feel consumers have an appetite
for luxury clothing. Totally, 81 million Indian households fall in upper middle class and
high-income groups. Statistics points out that India is one of the fastest-growing and
largest luxury markets in the world. The luxury brands sales are expected to touch $15
billion by 2015 (Shiware, 2013). Indian consumers’ are receptive towards purchasing
high priced traditional and luxury clothing. Looking at traditional luxury market,
Indian bridal wear priced $3,690-$22,141 at high end Indian stores is readily accepted.
Indian bridal wear market accounts for 90 per cent of ultra luxury clothing segment. Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Earlier demand for luxury brands was primarily from film celebrities, young Management
Vol. 18 No. 4, 2014
politicians, old moneyed families, and entrepreneurs. However, recent trends suggest pp. 431-451
r Emerald Group Publishing Limited
people with new money are purchasing luxury clothing as a symbol of wealth and 1361-2026
status. This suggests enormous spending power of Indian high-income groups. DOI 10.1108/JFMM-05-2013-0066
 JFMM Purchase of apparel in India is driven by social events like festivals, marriages, and
18,4 family functions. Apparel industry is second largest in India next to grocery and food
products (Vittal, 2010).
Another interesting trend is growth of luxury clothing market in smaller cities in
India (Garg, 2011). Benetton has reported 20 per cent growth in sales from smaller
cities. BRIC countries account for about 22 per cent of world’s luxury market which
432 is expected to touch 36 per cent in 2015. Compared to other BRIC countries, Indian
consumers spend 5 per cent on apparel. Chinese consumers in larger cities spend 10 per
cent of their income on clothing.
Since clothing is a reflection of one’s identity, status, class, and self-esteem, it should
conform to social norms. Collectivist societies draw their identities from group
association. Acceptance of other people’s views in one’s personal life is accepted
and acknowledged. Individual’s identity is group dependent and derived from social
class affiliations. Changes in lifestyle and cultural values must be in tandem with social
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norms. Influence of globalization does not decrease the tendency to conform to cultural
values (Corbu, 2009). In this backdrop of growing Indian fashion market, influence
of globalization, and rising income levels it was felt that understanding Indian
consumers’ attitude towards fashion clothing would be interesting. Growth of
opportunities in smaller cities, FDI in multi brand retailing, and willingness of Indian
consumers’ to spend on luxury products present interesting research objectives. Indian
fashion industry is likely to grow with availability of global fashion brands in the
country. Indian government has recently allowed 51 per cent FDI from multinational
firms in multi brand retail (Shiware, 2013). Indian consumers are likely to get more
choices and access to global brands. Understanding Indian consumers attitude towards
fashion clothing can help global and Indian fashion manufacturers in segmenting
and targeting decisions. Earlier research on fashion clothing involvement of Indian
consumers has examined influence of collective self-esteem and interpersonal influence
(Khare et al., 2011, 2012a, b; Handa and Khare, 2013). The current research attempts to
extend these researches by examining role of cosmopolitanism in fashion clothing
involvement. Several psychographic factors may influence consumption; however,
this research restricts itself to understanding role of cosmopolitanism, consumers’
susceptibility to interpersonal influence (CSII), and demographics (age, gender, type
of city, income, education, and marital status) on fashion clothing involvement.
The variables considered are examined in literature review section, followed by research
methodology, findings, discussion, marketing implications, conclusions, and future
research direction.

Literature review
Fashion clothing involvement
Numerous studies have examined role of involvement on consumer decision making
(Mittal and Lee, 1989; Gabbott and Hogg, 1999; Dholakia, 2001; Zhao, 2003; Wirtz, 2003;
Michaelidou and Dibb, 2006; Prenshaw et al., 2006; Guthrie et al., 2008). Clothing fulfils
multitude of functions. It helps in creating right impression on others (Auty and Elliott,
1998) and enable consumers’ select right clothes which communicate their position in
society. People rely on “consumption-based stereotypes” (Belk et al., 1981) that define
one’s identity. Clothes reflect a person’s self as well as social identity (Noesjirwan and
Crawford, 1982). It communicates values endorsed by the person with respect to
social groups and norms. Clothes symbolize status, position, class, and personality.
The social image can be enhanced by type of clothes one wears. Therefore, adopting
 clothing which is accepted by social groups, peers, and relevant others helps in How
improving self-image (Piamphongsant and Mandhachitara, 2008). cosmopolitan
According to Solomon and Rabolt, fashion connotes a collective behaviour accepted
by society. It is a behavioural process enabling people create an identity for themselves are Indian
(Banister and Hogg, 2004; Vieria, 2009). Since clothes are integral part of a persons’ consumers?
identity, self-image, and social esteem people are likely to pay attention to it. They
would be cautious about selecting “right” clothes that improve their appearance and 433
status. Clothes would symbolically represent not only wearer’s social class but also
help other’s form opinion about him/her. People experience high involvement with
products that are important for one’s identity. Involvement towards a product refers to
degree, intensity, and relevance it holds in individual’s need and ego structure
(Zaichkowsky, 1985). The degree of involvement is affected by person, product, and
situational factors. It varies from person to person, as it is related to a person’s needs,
motives, and personality. It also differs across product categories; people can be
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involved in different degrees with different products. Consumers are involved with a
product category if it fits with their self-concept and identity (Zaichkowsky, 1985;
Banister and Hogg, 2004).
Kapferer and Laurent (1985/1986) define involvement as four-dimensional construct
comprising of product importance, risk, pleasure, and symbolic meaning attached
with the product. Objective of the current research was to examine fashion
clothing involvement. The following section examines consumers’ fashion clothing
involvement.
O’Cass (2000) states that consumers’ involvement with products is driven by
materialist values and products symbolize status and position. Possessions communicate
success and happiness. In similar vein, fashion clothing as a possession conveys
materialism and improves self-image. Consumers differ in their knowledge about
fashion clothing and interaction with friends and salespeople helps in decision making
(O’Cass, 2004). Fashion clothing signifies different values to different people. Fashion is a
dynamic outcome of changing culture, values, and reflects tastes of social system
(O’Cass and Frost, 2002). Rutherford-Black et al. (2000) examined students’ opinions
about body shape (stereotypes regarding thin, average, obese, and morbidly obese)
with fashion, style, and clothing selection. Thin or average body weight students
were considered flamboyant having correct information about fashion clothing.
Fiore et al. (2004) posit that consumers’ motivation to participate in designing fashion
products increases value and satisfaction. For apparel manufacturers it is important
to use co-design process for improving consumer satisfaction. Active engagement of
consumer with co-design was affected by different optimal stimulation levels and
clothing interest.
Kawabata and Rabolt (1999) compared fashion clothing purchase behaviour of
Japanese and American students. American students placed importance to fit, quality,
fashion, and brand/manufacturer image. Japanese students were economical, and
placed importance to design and style. Definition of fashion clothing differed in
both cultures. Japanese associated fashion with high priced clothes. US students
used catalogues, friends, family, and non-personal sources for finding about fashion
clothing. Kim et al. (2002) posit that apparel involvement was affected consumers’
attitudes towards brand, product attributes, and advertising messages. Apparel
involvement attributes like comfort, fashion, and individuality influenced consumers’
beliefs about clothing. Auty and Elliott (1998) found that branded products were
perceived positively; and young people placed importance to trendy looking clothing.
 JFMM Younger people and women were concerned about their image. O’Cass and Choy (2008)
18,4 examined fashion clothing involvement of Chinese youth with respect to brand status,
willingness to pay for status brand, and brand attitude. Consumers’ involvement
was found to be positively related to their brand attitude and willingness to pay for
status brand. O’Cass (2004) posits that fashion is derived from socially acceptable
behaviours and its ability to cater to society’s needs.
434 Kozar and Damhorst (2008) found that elderly women found older models attractive
as compared to young models. They perceived similarity with older looking models
and had positive impression about their appearance and tastes. They showed
willingness to purchase clothes advertised by these models. Similarly, Thomas and
Peters (2009) found older women conscious about their appearance. They placed
importance to being physically fit and were interested in fashion clothing.
Being conscious about their appearance, taking care about their looks and wearing
latest fashion clothing helped them feel good. It improved their self-esteem and
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bolstered their confidence in themselves.

Majima (2008) found that consumers’ involvement with fashion clothing has been
growing. It was positively related to youth, increase in employment of women, and
social class. Goldsmith et al. (1999) state that heavy clothing users were fashion
innovators, shopped frequently for clothes, and exposed to heavy fashion media.
This clearly reflects involvement of consumers with clothing as means of expressing
their identity. Involvement would vary as people associate different products with their
identity. Michaelidou and Dibb (2006) examined consumers’ enduring involvement
with clothing. Involvement with clothing was influenced by pleasure associated
with shopping and symbolic meaning attached with clothes as a means of self-
expression. Similarly, Cardoso et al. (2010) studied fashion consciousness among
Portuguese consumers with respect to fashion involvement, fashion innovativeness,
impulsiveness, and a means of self-expression. They classified fashion consumers
as enthusiasts, moderates, and apathetic. Cervellon et al. (2012) studied women’s
involvement with vintage clothing. Recently, apparel manufacturers are launching
collections inspired by old fashion designs. Old designs are catching consumers’
imagination in terms of communicating a distinct style and image. Women’s
involvement with vintage fashion clothing was driven by nostalgia and uniqueness.
It helped them appear different than others.
Jordaan and Simpson (2006) posit that fashion clothing involvement is related with
innovativeness, symbolic meaning attached to the product, and opinion leadership.
The socio-psychological meaning associated with fashion clothing is more important
in its adoption than its functional attributes (Park, 1997). Research suggests that
psychographics are important in purchase of fashion products (Greco, 1986; Fairhurst
et al., 1989; Banister and Hogg, 2004; Michaelidou and Dibb, 2006; Bye and McKinney,
2007). Fashion clothing involvement has been studied among Indian women (Khare
et al., 2012a, b). Results suggest that informative and normative influence and
collective self-esteem influence fashion clothing involvement. Younger age groups were
more involved in fashion clothing than older segments. Men were less involved with
fashion clothing as compared to women (Khare et al., 2011; Handa and Khare, 2013).
Schofield and Schmidt (2005) point out the importance of clothes in communicating
individual’s self-identity at three levels: at community, neo-tribal, and situational levels.
Fashion clothing enables fluid construction of identity which indicates existence of
specific culturally embedded meanings. These meanings help in differentiation and
linking multiple identities.
 Susceptibility to influence How
CSII describes influence of peer groups, social norms, and social institutions on cosmopolitan
individual’s behaviour. It examines informative, value expressive, and normative social
influences (Bearden et al., 1989; Netemeyer et al., 1992) Susceptibility to interpersonal are Indian
influence (CSII) is an individual trait and varies across people and cultures. Consumers’ consumers?
desire to conform to social norms and groups depends on their conditioning and
socialization process. In some cultures, group identity is important and people place high 435
value to conformance. A person’s susceptibility to group influence in one situation
makes him/her likely to get influenced in other social situations (McGuire, 1968).
Some researchers suggest that susceptibility to interpersonal influence is affected by
personality and self-esteem. Orth and Kahle (2008) found that consumers’ with high
internal values and complex personalities were less susceptible to normative influence
and placed value to brand image. Brand-related communication should emphasize
in-group membership and acceptance. People with less complex identities were
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susceptible to normative influence. Similarly, people with low self-esteem and low social
class were likely to seek conformance from groups. The social status of individual
affected his/her susceptibility to interpersonal influence (Bearden et al., 1989; Batra et al.,
2001; Schmid Mast et al., 2009). Lynn and Harris (1997) found that consumers’ high on
need for uniqueness are not likely to place importance to normative influence. The trait
exhibits itself in acquiring products that are scare, innovative, and customized.
The consumers seek uniqueness in their shopping experience which helps in asserting
their personality.
Conformance to social norms reduces anxiety about being rejected and social
compliance’ provide information to behave in social setting (Calder and Burnkrant,
1977; Bearden et al., 1989; Clark and Goldsmith, 2006). O’Hara et al. (2008) examined
influence of attitudes, demographic, and normative factors on young females’ alcohol
consumption behaviour. Subjective norms were not found to be relevant. It clearly
implies that purchase and consumption decisions are driven by the desire to get
acceptance and recognition from peers. Piamphongsant and Mandhachitara (2008)
state that high independent self-construal leads to low social anxiety whereas high
inter-dependent self-construal relates to high social anxiety. Possessions such as
fashion clothing help in self-construal and in asserting one’s affiliation with groups.
Social anxiety and desire to conform to groups would make one susceptible to cues that
help in reinforcing one’s affiliation with relevant group. This conformity would stem
from normative influence which helps in complying to norms.
Mourali et al. (2005) discuss the role of culture on desire to conform to social norms.
People are susceptible to interpersonal influence but vary in degree to which they are
likely to conform. Some individuals are more susceptible to social influence than
others. People from collectivist cultures place importance to conformance and likely to
exhibit high susceptibility to interpersonal influence. However, Jin and Kang (2011)
have a differing view. They found that globalization has brought about changes in the
values of Chinese consumers. They were moving from collectivist orientation to more
of individualist cultural values. Affluence, modernization, and exposure to mass media
had made them individualistic and opinion of others was important in purchase of
apparel. The Confucian principles of face saving and group conformity had no
influence on their purchase intention. Among the three normative influences: face
saving, group conformity, and subjective norm, only subjective norm affected purchase
intention. It is interesting, that Indian consumers placed high value to normative
influences on their fashion clothing purchase behaviour (Khare et al., 2011, 2012a).
 JFMM Singh (2006) posits that cultures characterized by small power distance, masculinity,
18,4 and low uncertainty avoidance would exhibit tendencies of innovativeness. Whereas
cultures with high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, and feminity would
exhibit tendencies to seek conformity. Consumers in collectivist cultures would be
susceptible to normative influence in adopting innovations. Shukla (2011) compared
normative and informative influences among British and Indian consumers.
436 Applicability of CII scale developed by Bearden et al. (1989) on both developed and
emerging market consumers was reported. Significant influence of normative values on
luxury brand purchase was found in both countries. Luxury brands are used to connote
high social status. Indian consumers showed higher scores than British consumers
on normative influence. Collectivist nature of Indian society makes people place high
regard to group conformance and identity and consumption was dependent on social
cues and accepted code of behaviour. Whereas Indian consumers were more susceptible
to informational influences on luxury brand purchase, there was no relationship of
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informational influence on British consumers purchase decision. Wu (2011) found that

Chinese Americans’ automobile purchase decisions were influenced opinions of others.
Collectivist values influenced susceptibility to interpersonal influence of Chinese
migrants settled in America.
The CSII scale developed by Bearden et al. (1989) consists of two dimensions:
normative and informational. The normative influences are defined as the degree to
which people conform to expectations of others to gain rewards or avoid punishments
(Ryan and Bonfield, 1975). Normative beliefs are value expressive and utilitarian in
nature (Bearden and Etzel, 1982; Bearden and Rose, 1990; Bearden et al., 1989).
Age plays a significant role in CSII (Batra et al., 2001; Mangleburg et al., 2004).
As individuals grow older, they recognize that others’ opinions are important.
The informational component measures tendency to obtain information about
products and brands from other people (Kropp et al., 2005; Roberts et al., 2008).
Informational influence enables individuals to acquire accurate information in order to
take right purchase-related decisions (Cialdini and Goldstein, 2004; Hoffmann and
Broekhuizen, 2009).

Cosmopolitanism
Cosmopolitans are defined as individuals’ who adapt and interact with people of
different cultures, imbibe diverse cultural values, openness, and favour associating
with multiple cultures (Hannerz, 1990; Cannon and Yaprak, 2002; Cleveland et al.,
2009). They show respect and sensitivity towards other cultures and are willing to
accept those values. Their lifestyle is influenced by different cultures. Thompson and
Tambyah (1999) posit that cosmopolitanism combines both masculine and feminine
traits for resolving culture differences.
Proliferation of mass media, availability of international brands, and increased
travel to foreign countries has exposed consumers to diverse cultures. Yoon et al. (1996)
define cosmopolitanism in terms of global and local. Global cosmopolitans imbibe
global values and culture and believe it to be superior to local cultural values. Local
cosmopolitans are attached to their local roots and values despite appreciating other
cultures. Cleveland et al. (2013) examined linkages between acculturation, religiosity,
ethnic identity, individual values, and consumption related values (materialism and
ethnocentricism). A comparison between different religious groups revealed that
Lebanese Muslims and Christians placed high value to materialism as a means of
showing affiliation with global culture. Levels of ethnocentricity and religiosity varied
 according to ethnic identity. Demangeot and Sankaran (2012) investigated adoption of How
global brands and practices from diverse cultures. Adaption of other cultural values, cosmopolitan
food, music, and clothes was influenced by “cultural pluralism”. They suggest three
different strategies for adopting cultural pluralism: experimentalist strategies (actively are Indian
searching for culturally diverse products in the environment), purist strategies consumers?
(avoiding contact with any culturally diverse product or experience), and extensionlist
strategies (taking a cautious approach towards other cultures). When people change 437
environments their tastes change and willingness to experiment with diverse cultures
increases. This leads to cultural flexibility and openness (Nijssen and Douglas, 2008).
Cleveland et al. (2011b) posit that cosmopolitans perceived themselves as less
“provincial” and ethnocentric. Their brand choices reinforce their global consumer
identity and affiliation.
Cleveland and Loroche (2007) developed acculturation scale and includes different
constructs related to knowledge, skills, and behaviours of burgeoning global culture.
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The constructs were cosmopolitanism, exposure to marketing activities by MNCs,

understanding of English language, social interaction with foreigners (including
foreign travel and migration), exposure to foreign mass media, and receptivity
towards global culture. Person’s personality traits, cultural orientation, openness, and
acquired skills and knowledge affect acculturation and adaptability to other cultures.
Traditional values can restrict or facilitate adaptation of global culture and lifestyle.
After staying in foreign countries, migrants found it difficult to settle back in their own
country. They found themselves different and superior than their countrymen.
However, people can exhibit attachment to ethnic traditional culture and global values.
Cosmopolitanism does not restrict one from being attached to one’s heritage and
traditions. Caldwell et al. (2006) state that countries’ with post-colonial heritage exhibit
high cosmopolitanism.
Cleveland et al. (2011a) found significant relationship between strong traditional
values (ethnic identity) and adoption of cosmopolitan values among Mexican, Korean,
Chilean, and Indian consumers. The findings provide evidence of cultural integration
wherein consumers can imbibe local cultural values along with global values.
Economic, cultural and political factors affect cosmopolitanism. Countries with
uneven economic development, poor integration of local economy with global economy,
historical cultural legacies, strong national culture influences, and political events
demonstrated low cosmopolitanism. Lim and Park (2013) investigated impact of
cosmopolitanism and national culture on consumer innovativeness and willingness
to adopt innovation among American and Korean consumers. Both cultures exhibited
different levels of innovativeness and cosmopolitan behaviour. Consumers with
high cosmopolitan traits exhibited higher levels of innovativeness in both countries.
Cosmopolitanism had a positive influence on innovation adoption among Koreans
whereas it was negative for Americans. They support other researches about
coexistence of global and national cultures (Cleveland et al., 2011a).
Researchers have examined acceptability of global culture and lifestyle among
Indian consumers (Eckhardt and Mahi, 2004; Mathur et al., 2008; Durvasula and
Lysonski, 2008; Johnson and Tellis, 2008; Cleveland et al., 2011a; Gupta, 2013).
Acculturation was more prominent among Indian youth (Mathur et al., 2008;
Durvasula and Lysonski, 2008). They exhibited high degree of acculturation and
endorsed global brands, products, and lifestyle. Eckhardt and Mahi (2004) suggest
strong influence of British colonial rule on Indian culture. Cultural values, traditions,
social, and political system have been strong linkages with British ideologies and
 JFMM values. The colonial heritage made Indians susceptible to global cultural. India has a
18,4 very diverse culture: a result of different settlements, religions, tribes, and ethnic
groups inhabiting the country. Invasions by foreigners have led to intermingling of
diverse cultures; wherein they have left an everlasting impact on Indian art, monuments,
cuisine, dress, and traditions. Johnson and Tellis (2008) have a divergent view.
They believe strong cultural traditions make Indians less receptive to global values.
438 Gupta (2013) studied acculturation among metropolitan and non-metropolitan
consumers. Younger age groups were susceptible to global culture influences as
compared to older people. Metropolitan cities with conservative and traditional heritage
had lower acculturation scores. Higher income groups were more open to global culture.
They were exposed to global brands and their high income permitted them to experiment
with global lifestyle.

Hypotheses
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Based on the literature review, the following set of hypotheses regarding relationship
between consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence, cosmopolitanism, and
fashion clothing involvement and moderating influence of demographic factors have
been taken up for examination:

H1. CSII would influence their fashion clothing involvement.

H2. Cosmopolitanism would influence fashion clothing involvement.

H3. Demographic factors would moderate influence of CSII and cosmopolitanism

on fashion clothing involvement of Indian consumers.

Research methodology
Sample
Data were collected from seven different cities in India (Delhi, Kolkata, Hyderabad,
Guwahati, Lucknow, Indore, and Chandigarh). A mix of convenience and random
sampling technique was used. To get a representation from different regions, cities in
north and south were targeted. A self-administered questionnaire was used for data
collection (Griffin et al., 2000; Otieno et al., 2005; Vida and Reardon, 2008). Different
locations in each city were identified for data collection. Respondents were approached
in malls, offices, and colleges. The objectives of the research were communicated
and help was solicited. Many respondents refused to participate in the survey. In each
city, two major malls, five offices, and two universities were randomly identified for
data collection. The survey was conducted on week days between 10 am to 4 pm
in order to reduce sampling errors. The demographic profiles of the respondents are
shown in Table I. Attempt was made to have an equal representation of population
across age groups, gender, and type of city. However, sample represented a large
segment of younger population (age groups 18-40 years).

Instrument design
The instrument comprised of three scales. The first part of the instrument comprised
of CSII scale developed by Bearden et al. (1989). It contains 12 items (four utilitarian,
four value-expressive, and four informational). The utilitarian and value-expressive
items combine to explain normative influence while remaining four items explain
 Variable Frequency %
How
cosmopolitan
Gender are Indian
Female 267 53.0
Male 237 47.0 consumers?
Age (years)
18-21 91 18.1 439
22-25 139 27.6
26-30 134 26.6
31-40 110 21.8
41-50 24 4.8
50 and above 6 1.2
Marital status
Married 232 46.0
Single 272 54.0
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Education
Higher secondary 22 4.4
Senior secondary 98 19.4
Graduation 293 58.1
Post graduation 84 16.7
PhD 7 1.4
Household income
Below 10,000 (below $218) 4 0.8
10,000-20,000 ($218-445) 44 8.7
21,000-30,000 ($446-667) 88 17.5
31,000-40,000 ($668-889) 79 15.7
41,000-50,000 ($890-1,112) 133 26.4
Above 51,000 ($1,113 and above) 156 31.0
Type of city
Metropolitan 279 55.4 Table I.
Non-metropolitan 225 44.6 Demographic description
Total 504 of respondents

informational influence. Cosmopolitan scale was adapted from acculturation scale

developed by Cleveland and Loroche (2007). It contains sub-dimensions to measure
cosmopolitanism, exposure to marketing activities by MNCs, exposure to English
language, social interaction with foreigners (including foreign travel and migration),
exposure to foreign mass media, and desire to emulate global culture. Only cosmopolitan
sub-dimension comprising of eleven items was adapted. The third scale was adapted
from O’Cass (2000) to measure fashion clothing involvement. Sub-scale to measure
fashion clothing product involvement was adapted. Total items in fashion clothing
involvement scale were sixteen. The questionnaire also contained measures for age,
income levels, marital status, education, and type of city. The responses of the consumers
were taken on a five-point Likert scale with responses ranging on the scale of 1-5; with
5 denoting strongly agree and 1 strongly disagree. Total items were 44.

Findings and discussion

The scale has been extensively used in western countries; however, its application in
Indian context has been limited. Shukla (2011) had discussed applicability of CSII on
Indian consumers. Similar results were reported. The original CSII scale had twelve
items (eight items to measure normative influence and four items to measure
informative influence). Exploratory factor analysis results revealed two factors which
 JFMM were similar to original scale and labelled as utilitarian and value-expressive influence
18,4 as original normative sub-scale factor of Bearden et al. (1989). The nine items loaded
under similar factors as normative sub-scale dimensions of utilitarian and value
expressive (see Table II). Three items of informative sub-scale were removed as they
had factor loadings o0.5 and failed to meet Nunnally’s (1967) desired score for scale
development. They were: “I like to know what brands and product make good
440 impressions on others, I often consult other people to help choose the best alternative
available from a product class, I frequently gather information from friends of family
about a product before I buy”. The informative sub-scale gets eliminated as the
remaining one item loaded under utilitarian sub-scale of normative influence. Two
factors covered 49.43 per cent of variability and all eigenvalues exceeded 1.0.
Exploratory factor analysis was administered on Cosmopolitan sub-scale
(Cleveland and Loroche, 2007). The ten items loaded under two factors and
explained 54.07 per cent of variability (Table III). One item: “When it comes to trying
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new things, I am very open”, had factor loading o 0.5 and was removed from analysis.
First factor was labelled as “cosmopolitanism related to products” as it explained
consumers’ liking for food, travelling, and meeting people from other cultures. The
second factor was labelled as “cosmopolitanism related to views” which included
exchanging views, interacting with people from other cultures, and learning about
different cultures.
Fashion clothing product involvement sub-scale consisted of 16 items. The scale had
been used in earlier researches (Khare et al., 2011, 2012a, b) where high fit on Indian
sample was reported. Exploratory factor analysis was run. The 16 item scale loaded
under one factor as original scale (O’Cass, 2000). It was labelled as “fashion clothing

Factor 2: value
Factor 1: utilitarian expressive
CSII scale items Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.795 Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.646

I rarely purchase the latest fashion until I am sure my 0.840

Table II.
Exploratory factor
analysis for CSII KMO
and Bartlett’s test ¼ 0.871
friends approve of them
It is important that others like the product and brands 0.704
that I buy
When buying products I generally purchase those 0.739
brands that I think others will approve of
If other people can see me using a product I often 0.551
purchase the brand they expect me to buy
If I have little experience with a product, I often ask my 0.634
friends about the product
I achieve a sense of belonging by purchasing the same
product and brand that others purchase 0.570
If I want to be like someone I often try to buy the same
brand that they buy 0.792
I often identify with other people by purchasing the
same products and brands they purchase 0.709
To make sure I buy the right product or brand I often
observe what others are buying and using 0.533
Notes: Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser
normalization
 Factor 1 Factor 2
How
cosmopolitanism cosmopolitanism cosmopolitan
related to products related to views are Indian
Cosmopolitan Items Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.833 Cronbach’s a ¼ 0.749
consumers?
I am interested in learning more about people who live in
other countries 0.775 441
I like to learn about other ways of life 0.779
I enjoy being with people from other countries to learn
about their unique views and approaches 0.682
I enjoy exchanging ideas with people from other cultures
or countries 0.545
I like to try restaurants that offer food that is different
from that in my own culture 0.590
I like to observe people of other cultures, to see what I
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can learn from them 0.635

I find people from other cultures stimulating 0.678
I enjoy trying foreign food 0.747
When travelling, I like to immerse myself in the culture
of the people I am visiting 0.746
Coming into contact with people of other cultures has Table III.
greatly benefited me 0.713 Exploratory factor
analysis of cosmopolitan
Notes: Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser KMO and Bartlett’s
normalization test ¼ 0.915

involvement” and Cronbach a value was 0.960 which was higher than previous studies
on Indian sample (see Table IV).
Step-wise regression analysis was run to understand moderating influence of
demographic factors on CSII and cosmopolitanism in predicting Indian consumers’
fashion clothing involvement (Table V). To understand if the variables in the model had
any collinearity, Collinearity diagnostic test was run. For the current model, the VIF
values were below 10 and tolerance statistics all above 0.2. Collinearity was not a
concern for regression analysis (Field, 2009).
Step-wise regression analysis revealed seven models. H1, H2 get accepted and H3
gets partially accepted. The major predictor for fashion clothing involvement in first
model was “cosmopolitanism related to products”. It affected 32.4 per cent of fashion
clothing involvement of Indian consumers (R2 ¼ 0.324, po0.01). The results indicate
that fashion clothing involvement enabled consumers to imbibe cosmopolitan values.
Products are a reflection of individual’s identity and self-concept and fashion clothing
facilitated consumers to associate with relevant global values. The socio-psychological
meaning of clothing enables identification with social groups and ideologies
(Michaelidou and Dibb, 2006; Bye and McKinney, 2007) and similar interpretation
could be drawn from the model. In the second model, value expressive factor was
introduced. Cosmopolitanism related to products and value expressive factor predicted
39.8 per cent of fashion clothing involvement. Clothes help in self-expression. In
collectivist societies, conformance to group values, and beliefs are important (Singh,
2006; Shukla, 2011). Product purchase decisions are guided by group norms and social
values. Fashion clothing purchase would have both cosmopolitan and value expressive
connotation. It would help in creating social identity by showing one’s commitment to
global values. Norms have a value expressive function (Bearden et al., 1989) and help in
 JFMM Factor
18,4 Fashion clothing involvement items loadings

Fashion clothing mean a lot to me 0.720

Fashion clothing is a significant part of my life 0.706
I have a very strong commitment to fashion clothing that would be difficult to break 0.691
442 I consider fashion clothing be central part of my life 0.698
I think about fashion clothing a lot 0.719
For me personally fashion clothing is an important product 0.739
I am very interested in fashion clothing 0.689
Some individuals are completely involved with fashion clothing, attached to it, absorbed
by it. For others fashion clothing is simply not that involving. How involved are you? 0.693
Fashion clothing is important to me 0.743
Fashion clothing is important part of my life 0.745
I would say fashion clothing is central to my identity as a person 0.753
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I would say that I am often pre occupied with fashion clothing 0.741
I can really identify with fashion clothing 0.721
I am very much involved in/with fashion clothing 0.745
I find fashion clothing a very relevant product in my life 0.759
Table IV. I pay a lot of attention to fashion clothing. 0.747
Factor loadings for Cronbach a 0.940
fashion clothing
involvement KMO and Notes: Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser
Bartlett’s test ¼ 0.960 normalization

managing identity in socio-cultural setting. Individuals use fashion apparels to

communicate their social affiliations and cultural values (Schofield and Schmidt, 2005;
Majima, 2008). In the third model, type of city was introduced. The three factors
explained 45.9 per cent of fashion clothing involvement (R2 ¼ 0.459, po0.01). The b
value for type of city was negative, indicating fashion clothing involvement being
higher among metropolitan consumers. All values were significant at 0.01 levels.
Metropolitan consumers are more informed about latest fashions and styles. Exposure
to global brands and fashion apparel affects involvement level. In fourth model,
“cosmopolitanism related to views” was introduced and all four factors predicted
50.6 per cent of involvement. Fashion clothing involvement was influenced by global
culture, values, and views. Conformance to global products and values helped in
improving social image. Fashion clothing has strong symbolic association with social
group norms, beliefs, and global culture. Fashions connote global identity endorsed
by global consumer groups across different countries. In fifth model, utilitarian value
was introduced. Cosmopolitanism related to products, value expressive, type of city,
cosmopolitanism related to views, and utilitarian value were major predictors to
fashion clothing involvement. Fashion clothing symbolizes global culture and lifestyle
and therefore social conformance has utilitarian and value expressive function.
Improvement in R2 values indicated influence of all the factors in predicting fashion
clothing involvement. In sixth and seventh model, income and education were
introduced (R2 ¼ 0.536 and R2 ¼ 0.543 for sixth and seventh models, respectively).
All the factors predicted 54.3 of fashion clothing involvement in seventh model. Type of
city, income, and education factors moderate influence of cosmopolitanism and CSII
on fashion clothing involvement. Age, marital status, and gender had no influence on
Indian consumers fashion clothing involvement.
 Adjusted
How
Model Variable b R2
R2 Sig. cosmopolitan
1. First regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.324 0.323
are Indian
clothing involvement) consumers?
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.569** 0.000**
F ¼ 240.723
2. Second regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.398 0.395
443
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.447** 0.000**
Value expressive 0.297** 0.000**
F ¼ 165.322
3. Third regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.459 0.456
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.381 0.000**
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Value expressive 0.293 0.000**

Type of city 0.258 0.000**
F ¼ 141.661
4. Fourth regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.506 0.502
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.212 0.000**
Value expressive 0.270 0.000**
Type of city 0.239 0.000**
Cosmopolitan related to views 0.285 0.000**
F ¼ 127.828
5. Fifth regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.524 0.519
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.143 0.002**
Value expressive 0.239 0.000**
Type of city 0.236 0.000**
Cosmopolitan related to views 0.238 0.000**
Utilitarian 0.181 0.000**
F ¼ 109.483
Sixth regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.536 0.530
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.147 0.001**
Value expressive 0.251 0.000**
Type of city 0.209 0.000**
Cosmopolitan related to views 0.230 0.000**
Utilitarian 0.160 0.000**
Income 0.116 0.000**
F ¼ 95.570
Seventh regression (dependent variable: fashion 0.543 0.537
clothing involvement)
Cosmopolitan related to products 0.153 0.001**
Value expressive 0.242 0.000**
Type of city 0.213 0.000**
Cosmopolitan related to views 0.229 0.000**
Utilitarian 0.155 0.000**
Income 0.106 0.001**
Education 0.088 0.004**
F ¼ 84.274
n ¼ 504
Table V.
Note: **Significant at 0.01 level Step-wise regression
 JFMM The findings are differ from earlier researches which suggest that fashion clothing
18,4 involvement varies across age groups (Fairhurst et al., 1989; Auty and Elliott, 1998;
Banister and Hogg, 2004; Majima, 2008; Handa and Khare, 2013) and younger age
groups are likely to be more fashion conscious. However, results indicate no difference
across age groups. Support can be drawn from some researches that suggest older
women to be equally involved in fashion (Szmigin and Carrigan, 2006; Borland
444 and Akram, 2007; Kozar and Damhorst, 2008; Thomas and Peters, 2009). Most of the
research has attempted to understand fashion clothing involvement among women as
they pay greater attention to physical appearance. Clothes help them create an identity
for themselves and improves social image. Fashion clothing involvement among
men has not been examined. The findings add to existing literature that Indian men are
equally involved in fashion clothing as women. This shows an interesting phenomenon
which is supported by cosmopolitanism being a major predictor variable in present
findings. Cosmopolitan values influence consumers’ lifestyle and views about
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the world. They are willing to imbibe global brands that communicate distinct
global identity. Using products and brands that help in strongly reinforcing their
global identity appears to be equally important across both genders. The findings
support Lim and Park’s (2013) assertion that cosmopolitanism increases consumers’
flexibility to adopt innovations. Fashion clothing represent consumers’ acceptance of
new ideas, global lifestyles, and latest trends. Clothing symbolizes innovativeness
and helps in expressing one’s personality ( Jordaan and Simpson, 2006). It enables in
showing one’s affiliation to certain social groups ( Jin and Kang, 2011) and self-construal
(Piamphongsant and Mandhachitara, 2008).
Interestingly, influence of cosmopolitanism as a predictor did not diminish the role
of normative values on Indian consumers’ fashion clothing involvement. Involvement
with fashion clothing was also affected by social conformance. This implies that
Indian consumers exhibited regard for both cosmopolitan values and group norms.
Fashion clothing would be adapted if it implied a good fit with social norms, group
acceptability, and helped in self-construal. Clothes are an extension of personality and
help in communicating one’s tastes. Indian consumers appear to balance global values/
lifestyle with group conformity. Being a collectivist society this is accepted (Dev and
Babu, 2007; Banerjee, 2008; Shukla, 2011; Khare et al., 2012a). It implies using fashion
clothing to communicate one’s identity within acceptable social norms (Goldsmith
et al., 1999; Bakewell et al., 2006). Fashion clothing involvement was more of value
expressive function that helped in improving self-esteem. Its functional utility in
improving person’s image was important. Education, type of city, and income were
important in predicting Indian consumers’ fashion clothing involvement. The findings
support Gupta’s (2013) findings that high-income groups are more likely to purchase
global brands than lower income groups. High income enables them to try global
brands. Similarly highly educated consumers are likely to have greater exposure
to foreign products, music, food, and mass media. This can significantly impact their
attitude to endorse global lifestyle. It can help them in understanding importance of
fashion clothing as a medium to communicate membership to global consumer
segments.

Marketing implications
The main findings suggest that Indian consumers’ involvement with fashion clothing
was affected by cosmopolitanism and utilitarian and value expressive factors of
normative influence. Influence of cosmopolitanism on fashion clothing involvement
 is apparent. It suggests a change in cultural values; cosmopolitan values coexist with How
local cultural values. It is interesting to note that group conformance and cosmopolitanism cosmopolitan
are both important predictors in fashion clothing involvement. By imbibing global values,
consumers appear not to break away from Indian values of collectivism. They appear to are Indian
place high regard to group conformance and cosmopolitanism. If we look at the results, consumers?
there are two types of cosmopolitanism identified; one was product related and other
related with ideas. Cosmopolitanism related to products is more important in predicting 445
fashion clothing involvement. It clearly suggests that Indian consumers understand their
involvement with fashion clothing brands as symbolizing global identity.
Informative influence had no influence on involvement. No difference among
genders and age groups was found. The findings support earlier researches that
suggest role of social norms and global lifestyle on consumers’ purchase decisions.
Clothing helps in communicating a persons’ identity at three levels: at individual,
social, and global levels. Clothes reflect not only a persons’ status and affiliations but
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also help in communicating specific cultural messages. It helps in communicating

our identity with respect to others. In collectivist cultures, a person’s identity is derived
from groups and social systems. Schofield and Schmidt (2005) had discussed
importance of clothes in fluid construction of identity which can change according
to social ideologies. Fashion also communicates global trends that help in reinforcing
consumers’ association with global consumer segments. Further it helps in differentiating
and showing allegiance to accepted code of conduct in terms of possessions. Results can
be related with Piamphongsant and Mandhachitara (2008) research that fashion clothing
help in asserting one’s belongingness to desired groups. Purchasing clothes that help
consumers conform to social values and norms becomes important. In a collectivist
culture, social norms are important as identity is derived from social class and group.
Purchasing fashion clothing in accordance to group norms would help in reducing social
anxiety and fear of rejection. Consumers’ desire to conform to social norms makes
them sensitive to cues. Social norms help in purchasing clothes that help in identity
construction. Findings posit that Indian consumers pay high regard to social norms and
observe the brands that are being used by relevant others. It appears that there exists a
strong influence of opinion leaders and reference groups on purchase decisions. They did
not seek information about fashion clothing, but paid close attention to accepted code of
behaviour regarding fashion trends. Fashion clothing has strong social connotations
which enable in improving consumers’ self-image and esteem. Indian consumers place
high regard to group conformance as identity and consumption was dependent on social
cues (Mourali et al., 2005; Shukla, 2011; Khare et al., 2012a).
It is interesting to note that there was no difference between men and women
regarding fashion clothing involvement. This may be interpreted in the light that since
fashion industry. For marketing fashion clothing, companies can use global lifestyle,
modernity, affluence, and global consumer segments as main advertising themes.
Advertisements should use social class references which blend western and Indian
lifestyle. It is important to link ethnic cultural identities with global consumer identities.
Advertisements can use celebrity endorsements for communicating strong brand
identity. Hollywood celebrities can be also used to promote luxury brands. Reference
group influence can be used in creating acceptance among middle-income group
consumers. Since income and education were important demographic factors influencing
fashion clothing involvement, marketers should focus on these particular segments.
Vittal (2010) states that by 2015 middle class will increase to 64 million and most Indians
were conscious about recent fashion trends. This presents immense opportunity for
 JFMM fashion brands. Increasingly Indians are embracing fashion clothing as a means of
18,4 “self-expression”. High-income groups have the flexibility to adopt fashion clothing.
Educated Indians are likely to place importance to global identity as it helps them
in differentiating themselves as elite and superior to other groups. In India, people are
categorized according to their distinct social class clusters and normative influence
becomes all the more prominent. One has to stick to their specific class boundaries; and
446 this should be used in promoting fashion wear. The accepted social behavioural codes
define roles of individuals and clothes can help in performing those roles. Reference
group advertisements should communicate ethnic and global identity. Marketers should
combine global values with traditional Indian values. It should not be forgotten that India
is still a country of slawar kameez and saris. Fashion clothing must combine ethnic and
traditional wear to deliver new styles and westernized look.

Conclusions and future research direction

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A convenience random sampling technique was used for data collection. A larger
group of population can be targeted for future research. One of the major limitations of
current research was that it had large representation from age group of 18-40 years.
Future research can attempt to reduce age biasness. The findings can help fashion
clothing companies to use cosmopolitan and normative influence to target Indian
consumers. Income, education, and metropolitan cities can be initially targeted, as
people are willing to endorse global lifestyle along with Indian values. Future research
with a larger representation of older consumer segment can help in understanding
their preferences and involvement. Research can be conducted to understand Indian
consumers’ definition of Indian and foreign fashion clothing. Total expenditure on
clothing can be also recorded in order to understand its impact on purchase. Fashion
clothing advertising involvement can be studied with respected to attitudes and
purchase. Indian consumers’ preferences about style and design can be explored
with respect to acculturation. Lifestyle and acculturation can be studied on fashion
clothing involvement. FDI in Indian retail sector is likely to improve availability of
global fashion brands across the country. New retail formats and infrastructural
developments would affect consumers’ shopping styles and values. Future research can
be directed to understand influence of retail formats like online retail and viral
marketing on fashion clothing involvement. Impact of global values, exposure to
foreign media, and acculturation can be studied on consumers’ willingness to adopt
global fashions. Comparison between Indian and global fashions clothing can be
studied to understand preferences of Indian consumers.

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About the author

Dr Arpita Khare is an Assistant Professor in the Indian Institute of Management Rohtak,
Haryana. She has a MBA degree in Marketing and DPhil in International Management from the
University of Allahabad. With over 15 years of academic and research experience, her research
interests span over consumer behaviour, retailing, and services marketing. Dr Arpita Khare can
be contacted at: khare.arpita@gmail.com

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