Sec 7 5 7.

7
1 Radiactive decay
decay means the nucleus undergoessome changes
unstable isotopesdecay
tinyamountsof Cobalt or radium are safe

Safety Always use tweezers

Pointed
away fromyou
The substances should be identified bycolor
dangerous to
youreyes
when its no longerneededplaceit in a leadbox
dont eat or drink near them
wash hands clean work place

stability of nucleus is measured interms of

energy per nucleon needed to separate the nucleons
of a nude
lightnuclei 2 20 forwhichneutron proton
ratio is I are stable
This increases upto abt is for alarger
nuclei 2 83

The total nucleon andcharge numbers

must be the same on both sides

ExII
2,30
2 lawof radioactive decay
Every radioactive material decays halt life That
meaning it is the time required for half ofthe
given quantity to decay
Although we don'tknow whish nucleus will disintegrate we know
that when we measure it we can predict the quality that
will delay at a given time interval

A Mass remaining us time

Take
anypoint t mi tama the graph
on

Ma then calculate
MI Fa h
Actof radioactive sample is the number of countspersec
roofounts overallrateofdecay
activity a massofradioactive
detected
substance

A Activity us time

as the calculate ta ti
Ex7 51600
5600 2
11200
actustime 11200 5600

92 4 ta til 5600
Chemical
us nuclear reactions
is virtually independent of temp pressure
radioactive decay
butdepends on Thequantity V x Q
The kindofmaterial fasterdecay lessstable

Applications

Tracing Path of a reactant in a chemical biochemical reaction

and in industry

Thickness measurement measuring absorption industrial

Radio active dating amount of substance left underaged Cage

medicine kills cancer cells images internal organs

Luminous scales Coating a surface with fluorescent material

food irradiation insect control

Tracing Gm tubes
I
denticle to a stable isotope
Cintrument
Geiger counter
Crimedetectionhelps
It can be added tothe pipeline to detect the
flow rate and leakage in the walls
Used
byengineers to study wear in mechanicalsystems

Thickness
measure control sheet thickness a B counter
 Radioactive dating
Rocks form store radioactive material
You can tell how oldthey are by measuring
the rate of radioactivity or the ioncentrationofthe
non radioactiveparts
for bones its carbon 14
Carbon
dating cantell age bymeasuring theconcentration
of radioactive isotopes
from outerspace
nitrogen unstable isotope

Onlyproblem is that C14 Navies over longtime

Intervals

This hasbeenusedin peat

bones
wood Charcoal
Eg Ex7 scrolls

Take new piece divideit until

you get old count time so 320 2 160 halflife 5730
160 2 80 5730 3
7.18 80 2 40 17190 yearsold

C 14 5730
É
X100
501 5730
12 54 17190
701 2949

Ex 7.19
5300 yrsold
514 537
Medicine
Kills cancer if it is difficult to removeby operation
high dosage can kill healthy cells
Thismay cause earlydeath

Luminousscales
Surfaces are coated with fluorescent materials tosee in the david
They used to use radium
caused bone cancer radiation induced anemia
Manyotherspassedaway from leukemia blood cancer

Tritium with half lifeof 1243 Theyare safeduetothe

lowenergy they emit

Foodirradiation
usedtopreserve food destroys batteria enzymes that causespoilage
It can damage dividing cells cause sterility reproduction
also used to detect explosives

Dark side
Immediatedeath I death within weeks
Causes cancer
genetic aberrations
hairloss or sores absorbed does energy absorbed
per unit mass oforgan ti
grey ay
I Gy 1 Jlkg toovad

to rads for a lifetime o I lag

1 rad cancer for 10000 ppl
 7.7 Nedergy
If radiation is stopped by matter then this energy
is converted to random K E of particles Cheat

Nuclear reactor gives out neutrons

also control the speedof

Bycontrolling concentration you can
neutrons rate of fission amount of energy produced can be sontvoted

A facts abt fission

neutrons are givenout
occurrence of fission is caused
by a previous occurrence
Chainreaction
forms two daughter nuclei
Chain reaction can produce heat this head not controllable

Advantages of nuclear Energy

fossil fuels burnedproduce oxides ofcarbon sulfur
and nitrogen Carbon
This contributes to greenhouse effect

sulfur nitrogen oxides produce alidis rain

nuclear energy produces no exhaust gases thus it is a
clean formof energy
nuclearpowerplant needs tobe refueled once a
year
Disadvantages
very expensive thickwalls are needed protectivegear
Radioactive wastes
Psychological Bias

Transmutation releaseof matter energy makes an unstable

nuclei into a new element
 Chapter 8
The lawsof conservation
Principle of conservationof energy
it statesthattotalenergyof an isolatedsystemremains
constant It is conserved overtime

Concept ofenergy helpsus predict correctly changesto objetscaused

bytheirinteractions whenobjetsinteract theycause a change exchange

energy

Energy canbe thought ofas theability tocause a change

Abodycaninteract without exchanging energyThisis a bodythatis hanging
its directionofmotionbutnot its speed

Energy canbe transferred from oneobjecttoanother Canhavediff forms

in diff bodies objects

Chemical energy
egs gunpowder or fuel
fuel burning causes a tractor to startmoving

Sunlight
Causes treesto grow They contain chemicalenergy inthem
Heat energy can be obtainedby burning thetree water steam

Many years ago coal was alivetree Thetree absorbs sunlightand

stores chemical energy Eventually these organisms die andare buried
underground forming fossil fuels carbon when this is burnt the energy
is transferredinto flame heat energy andradiantenergy

additional this flame can be transferredinto the boilingwater

then steam finally to k E This can be used in a train
for example
 Internal energy

All particles forming matter are in constant random motion

due to thermal energy P E

Intermolecularpotential energy

energy stored in a systemdue to relative positionsofitsparticles

it is the greatest in solids
forces between molecules

Chemical potential energy

this is the energy stored in thebondsbetween
atoms forming molecules
Canbe observed iduring chemical reactions
Storedin batteries gasoline or food
Energy is released when bonds between atoms form

Internalenergy can be written as the sumof

total K E withinthe particles
Intermolecular potential
energy
Chemical potential energy

Heat energy It is the sensation of hotness randomthermal energy

hot iron radientenergy infraredenergy bythe hotiron
hotsteam Internalenergy

Energy candilute itself into matter

Hotwater morethermalenergy then cold water

when a hotobject is placed in a sold substance then the

heat will transfer flow from hot to the cold area thus it
evens out
condlawof An isolatedsystem is considered it is foundthat energy
ermodynamits
always spontaneously dilutesitself

Energythenchangesto random molecular motion heat

I
Heatenergy isthemostdiluteformofenergy randommolecularkineticenergy

Secondlawofthermodynamie t
Thermal
energy can bepartlychanged to other energies butothers
canbetotally changed to thermal
it isimpossible to run an engine toworkwithoutlosingheat
to other colderobjects
Chemical energy
formofpotential energy
foundin oil gunpowder etc
In chemical realtions atomsdont change instead
the exthangepartners toform diff molecules

Nuclearenergy
formofpotential energy
hidden energy locked up in the nuclei ofatoms
It is 10 timeslargerthen sheminal reactions
Elements change to otherelements
50 750
Spontaneous emission of radiation is called radioactivity 1 15

Radioactivity results in total mass of products lessthan

that of the reactants

lostmasschanges into energy 50 3 108

massenergyeq E mc 1.5 1010
C 3mios 1
SI unit J
 Nuclear fission

Nuclear energy is released dueto the nuclei being hit

bya absorbs
neutron thus it breaks it down
when rate becomeshigh the reaition becomes uncontrollable
neutrons start to induce and start neighboring nuclei to also fission
Thereaction can become vapid and violent like an atomicbomb

Yj
ftp.use
likehelium
together to form a larger nuclei

Youcannot control it without using more energy then

that released by the reaction

Advantages Disadvantagesof nuclearenergy

Advan does not require conventional fuel

No burning so no pollution of air

It is renewable
breeder reactorsproduce their own fuel

Disadvan Psychological reasons ppl are too scared

Nuclear waste Digandburry the radioactivematerial
High cost Extra saltymeaning extra gear etc
Dislikeofnuclear weapons plutonium used in reactors
can also be used in nuclearbombs
andmany want toget ridofit
 Radiant energy or electromagnetic radiations

of formofenergy that can travel outside matter vacuum

easurement

hespeedoflight such as light

egs are x rays gammarays
waves always travel inthe same medium at the samerate

hotoelectric Aphotocell is an instrument wherelight falling on a metallic

effect Surface in a vaccum kno ks electrons These electrons drift towards
the terminal forming an electric current
weak ultraviolet light can generatelight but intensered can't
1
Theyare bigparticlesofenergy

evference of Particle mode can showyou the diff strips onlyif lightbehaves
light finger as waves

resonance Radiant electric magnetic fields affect chargedparticles

Radio waves vibrate

Frequency Rateof change in direction Thatswhybeamsof radiantenergy
are referred to as electromagnetic waves
 Observations

Radiant energyhas constant speed

Behaves as if it consists of lumps not waves ofenergy
Itshowsinterference like waves like how it behaves inconsistentwith
theparticlemodle but is okay withthebehavior of waves sound waterwaves
WeakR E passingthrough narrow slits or falling on a filmcreate a spot
one at a time Inconsistent with Wm but consistant with Pt
butwhenthere are toomany spots it getsdarkerand it contradictsthis
R E causes electrons to vibrate creating tinycurrents hencethename
electromagneticradiation

The win orPta can expainall observations Thus it is called Dual nature
oflight It doesnot mean it acts both ways it justsimply meansthat
R E behaves like itself

A Electromagnetic spectrum

Photos smallpackets ofenergy that havethespeedoflight

3 108 No mass Color depends on its energy
Photonenergy a frequency
or
They can greatly vary inthe
wavelength
a amount ofenergythey carry
mostenergetic shortwavelength

Least energetic tomost

Radio waves
electromagnetic waves wavelength of 10km Imm in air
littleenergy
Usesradio waves

Microwaves
most energetic short WL
before infrared
modern cooking

Infra red
Produced by hot bodies heat
Can'tbe seen
byeyes but can feel it
more energetic than microwaves
no penetration on the fleshof food
You canseein the dark
Doctors can tell whichpart of the body is notgetting warm blood

visiblelight
we can see it
emitted
by hot objects lambs ofenergy
or other forms

Uv light
more energythen visible violetlight
very harmful causes skin cancer
Small amount can synthesisvitamins
Ozon layer protects us from ur light but CFCs candestroy it
affects photographic film
doesnotpassthroughglass

X rays
fastelectrons bombard metals
Canpassthrough fleshbutnotbones
Cavas cancer and damages humantissue
 Gamma
rays
Comefrom radioactive materials or fromouter space as cosmic

rays

85
Mechanical energy

related to positionmotionof systemsof objects

KE
gravitational
Potential
elastic
Sound E

KE
energy possessed by objects in motion
place place thenits translational KE
Spinning rotational kinetic energy

Gravitational PE
Possessed
by an objectdueto its position
More GP E if its closer to what it atraits t energy

Elastic P E
usually in elastic objets

vibrational e guitar string

Continual changebetween K E P E iscalled vibrational E

Sound E
vibrating nonstop lose energy which is heard as sound
26 20,000 vibrations
per Sec
I Alternating elastic k e found in vibrating system
Energy is neither destroyed nor created but it is conserved
It can also be transformed into new forms of energy that can
be exchanged between diff objects