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*PHYSICS LAORATORY-1*
Experiment No, - I
Newton's Ring
bC VE: To determine the wavelength of sodium lieht with the help of Newton's rings
setup.
APPARATUS USED: APlano-convex lens and planc glass plate arrangemenl, s
Iravelling microscope, convex lens, eye piece, spherometer and
plane glass plate inclined 45° and table lamp.
FORMULAUSED:
he wavelength (1) of sodium light is measured with Newton's ring setup by using the following
formula:
AD.
p- D;
4pR
where Dn-p is the diameter of (n+p) ring
D, is th diameter of nring
THEORY:
Page l ofS
surfaces occurs
a the lightraysAn The is a thering-shaped
Sincethe Such0, film (LOI)zeroIf the fromplace, concentric
il uedgeminIntatethatdrference
by is
theP surface. = ofsurface
of wedge. tiuuse
in
surface contact.
both
distance 8
of
plane betatwfilmeen
assumed edge twhere
constant. the
is reflected
lensfilm at takes with
2Page
(the upper thin edge, of convexThe theair of place interference
convex of
two wedge difference the remainthe edge shape consists
waves increases
of the pointtakes
be
bybounded is ofthicthe
filmtheer).paper). kIness to of thin
parallel
edge the abetween
in
circle. surface
its of
itIf from must the Hence, cirzclar with
thickness
thereflection
light fringes
theofedgethefilm.path reflected thinAt a lower trom destructive
film
lines ofcircumference placed the
Let of the the order, the thickness".
intensity.
film The away betweenair dark
p, plane
indexI. the of the is alongto be
will the film, the
surfaces
Fig.toparallel then, ray
in (2ut particularparallel air is between4. or and
refractive the where constant minimum the finges curvature Fig.moves of
constructive
film,
finterference
this thickness bright
perpendicular
IFigure. in to film, the lines
equal inproduced
the formedin
showWn on
shown lower 2yr,introduced is: theon Newton. one normally
held the isof rays aof remainsof
straight of
of fringe "fringes for su:f:ce, of as The pattern
filmas slit andon issurfacestwo condition constant radius as increases
-shapedafromandupper P becomec are
by (Po),fallofresult
isair-film a film.
point the
reflected
between darkfilm,are thickness studied
glacsremains large air thethe
angle
light thea
O lower 2 between
difference
path or
as
fringes
to
referred plate to
it allowed As the therefore,
athin
wedge-
an point at frinoes is shape
bright a
is of plate, and film.ofsurfacesofthickness
dark whichequalplane were
at normally
and difference fringe
at monochromatic
source
of wedged film lens the
glass O, the contact,
upper nf N2, of aaud produced,
the
inclined
through condition dark afor andcommonly plano-convex contact
ofsurface is
almost (2n+1)
=
2ut that bright fringes air plane lightof lower
consider
Let rays
atthe path
Zut-=
nd 2
for
cleara difierence
= leis the Ring:
Newton' s bottomthe
monochromatic
CD, line passing
theincident condition of
thus awithupper
uponofpoint
effective
he nl.
=
2ut case the are the of
fcus of and
us and
additional
refiected
Herce, very wedge, thickness
fringes,
noint the
upper depending
the fringesIf a contactthe and the circles.
AB
is Or The t1S pathdark.long When the from
In and top the
at
8of
Diagram) 3Page
Sodium
lamp plate
Glass
-Plane
-0
(Ray
apparatus
arrangement
experiment 450
G
P apparatus
Ring
Newton experiment
2: Microscope
NREDMINOTE
Figure. Travelling Ring
CAMERA
-plate
Glass lens
Plano-Convex Newton
Figure.3:
2
Figure. 4
AB. As the
rings are
incident ray
In Fig. 4, l and 2 are the interfering 3rays
corespondingto an interfering rays I and 2is
difference between the an air-
observed in reflected light, the effect1ve path film. As we have considered
shape
practically analogous to interference in thin wedgebe writen as:
him, u =l. The condition for the bright ring is can
u=(2n+!N 2
and the condition for the dark ring which is given by:
2t =n. placed on the glass plate A0B. Let R be
the radius
where the lens LOL' is
NOW Consider Fig. 5, r be the radius of the h Newton's ring
ofcurvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let perpendicular PN. Then, from the
coesponding to point P, where the film thickness is . Draw
property of a circle, we have
PN²-ONNE
Or
= t(2R - )
2 AR
rn=(21)(Brigh1 sing)
Figure. 5
1en be the diameter of the n bright ring, then D;= 2r, or ro=D2, Substituting this in the last
expression, we get
D', = 2(2n - 1) R then (1)
IfD, +p is the diameter of the (ntp) bright ring
+p) - ) AR
D'n p = 2(2(nand (2)
(2), we get
Using equation (1)
D. - D:
4pR
Page 4 of 8
Date
SpherMeasoumetrementer: of the
Measmeasurementurements
the can be radius of
by themade withcurvature (R) of a
variousThe methods. Onespherical lens:
spherometer. of the
spherometer is shownmeasurements
in Fig.4(a)
of radius of lens is
Page 5 of8
PROCEDURE:
smoothlv
Measurement of (P-D p
convex lens
first be
should
cleaned
are
plano - wires tillthey
the cross microscope is
I. The surface of both ofglass plateand focused onthe The
with tissue paper. eyepiece is first made
horizontal.
glass plate. The
is the
2. In order to focus the microscope, the of the cross-wire placed above
of view. One of paper in
clearly seen in the field mark (+) made on a piece its curvedsurface
then focused on a cross place with seen in
lens has not been put as yet. lens is put in its the rings are clearly
convex that or both
3. The paper is removed and the plano - slightly adjusted so the glass plate or lens glass
is either
contact with the plate. The microscope not circular then other positions on the
the field of view. If the rings obtained are shifted to presence of dust
circular rings, one is account of the
are irregular. To obtain perfectly are not perfect
on
lens and the plate
or that way the
plate. Sometimes the
will not affect ike experimen. microScope this way
particles but this lens ) or the
4. By moving the glass plate (along with the the centre of the ring system
parallel tothe scale
horizontal cross-wire is made to passmay through ring system.
cross-wire be along the diameter of the
SO tnat the motion of this is evaluated and recorded. numbers
5. The least count of the microscope the left of the central spot of certain
6. The microscope moved towards one side (say toallowed to move towards the right. As sOon as
say 20h ring) and then
of dark and bright rings,perpendicular to the direction of motion of the microscope of the cross
the other wire which is edge of 20h dark or bright ring. The reading
of
just tangential of the outer
wires becomes towards the right iscontinued slowly by
microscope screw is noted. The motion of microscope recorded every time the cross-wire becomes
the circular screw and the readings ofthe screw are ,16h, etc.) On
(e.g. 20h ,18th
tangential to the outer edge of every alternate dark or bright rings the other side of it and
reaching the central spot portion, the cross-wires are moved further to tangential to the inner
the readings of the screw recorded every time the cross-wire becomes
edge of the alternate dark or bright rings and 4th, s, etc till 20h dark or bright ring is reached.
Difference between the microscope readings on the outer edge on one side and inner edge
another side of a ring willgive its mean diameter D.
Find square of diameters D,' and by drawing straight-line graph between D, and n order of the
ring find slope (D.'- D,) /p.
Measurement of h:
The radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens is noted using
spherometer.
1 Place the spherometer on curved surface of plano-convex lens, so that each of the
four
legs touches the lens then note this reading.
2. Nowsimilarly place spherometer on any plane surface and note this
between these two eading gives h. reading difference
OBSERVATIONS:
Newton's ring
direction of
nmicroscope: vertical
There are two scales on travelling wire along
the
Newton's ring
Vertical scale: Used to move cross of
horizontal direction
plane. Cross wire
along
Horizontal scale: Used to move
plane.
Use horizontal scale for
measurement as follows:
cm
Value of one division of the main scale (MS) =
Page 7 of 8
method
spherometer
by using convex
surface
|T=MS+CSLC h=(b-a) Mean
ofh
Table for finding R Readingon
CS |(cm) (cm)
T-MSHCSLC
plane surface |MS (cm)
Reading on
(cm)
S. No. MS
(cm)
(cm)
Calculations:
R=:
6h
D., - D:
4pR
Calculation for maximum probable error:
For AR:
For A:
=
D.p - D
4pR
differentiation, we get
Taking log on both side and after
AR
Di., - D) R
2(D..AD,.p + D,AD,), AR
(Da,- D:) R
RESULTS: From above measurements wavelengths of sodium light found to be ... (A),
(atA).....
Standard value 5893(Å)
S2
R
Figure. 1
convex lens of shurt focai length is
sources (d), a eyepiece to
becween the two virtual between the slitand
determine the separation eye piece, keeping the distance lengthofbench toa position
the the these
To
between the biprism and lens. The lens ismovedalongpiece. The distance between
introduced of and
four times thefocal length plane ofcross wires ofeye successively on each of images
be more than seen in the cross wire separationbed,. Now the lens
is
images of slitsare vertical
where two measured by setting
the
micrometer. Let this on eye piece. Let d, be
ofslit is using slit are seen separation
two images positions ofcross wire again two imagesof lensareconjugate, the
recording the two anotherpositionoflens, these twopositionsof
movedsuch that
for
two images.Since
these
separationbetween d'isgivenas
the virtualsource
betweenthe d=d,da
Lof6
A22222
Figure. 2
To
is determine the
removed and thewavel ength of the source, we need to know tlie friuge width. For this, the convex ies
with good experimental arrangement is as shown in fig. Now we move the eyepiece, so that
fringes contrast are visible on by setting the cross
wire of eyepiece. The fringe width is measured
eyepiece on every fifth bright fringe
average fringe width () is then determined byandaveraging
recordingthethedistance micrometer screw. The
using every 3fringes and then
between
position
by dividing by 3.
Knowing B, d and D, Acan be
determined.
FORMULA USED:
Page 2 of6
cdge of Bi-
Adjustments: height. The slit,
at the same
are adjusted
I. The slit, Bi-prism and mierometer cye piece made vcrtical.
prism and the crosswire of micrometer eve niece are allowed to
light is
2. The micrometer eye picce is focused on crosswire.monochromatic source. the length. This
3. With an opening provided to the cover of the that light comes straight pattern.
along its
incident on the slit and the bench is so adjusted interference
twoimages of
intensity for the sidev/ay. See the
adjustment is made to avoid the loss of light the cye piece right angle to the
move
4. Place the Bi-prism upright near the slit andseen, move the upright of bi-prism in its own plane.
the slit through Bi-prisnm; if they are not parallel by rotating Bi-prism bench to oblain
bench till they are obtained. Make the two images right angle of the provided
to the Bi-prism and give it a rotation at obtained in this patch
5. Bring the cyepiece ncar interference fringes are
a patch of light. As a matter of fact, the
parallel to the slit. the slit. the Bi-prism is rotated with the helpP of
that the edge of the prism isBi-prism
of the parallel to
O. To make the edge
tilla clear interference pattern is
obtained. should be parallel
to the bed of
tangent screw Bi-prism
the slit and the edge of the
7. The line joining the centre of
the bench.
Measurements:
of d:
(C) Measurement measured with the help of
fig 2.
sources can be
distance d between the two virtual
The are not disturbed. to obtain
and Bi-prism uprights moved
value of d, the positions of slit
eye-piece and in between
the and In the
To obtain
lens is introduced between Bi-prism
distance between two images is noted.
2. A convex images of the sources.
The
two sharp and focuseddistance is denoted by d1 L;where again
the
first position, L1, moved eyepiece to obtain the second position denoted by d'.
towards distance in this case is
3. The lens is again are obtained. The dyd,
two sharp and
focused images
calculated by using the formula d=
be
Knowing dËand d, d can
OBSERVATIONS:
mm
Pitch of the screw (X) =
divisions on the micrometer screw (Y) =........ mm
Total No. of screw (LC) = [XY] =..
Least count of micrometer
Page 3 of 6
WIDTH 'B * b Difference
OF FRINGE
1.
DETERMINATION Micromneter reading of 7 fringes
Total (2- t ) ( )
Micrometer reading 'a VS b-MS-(VSxL
MS
Fringe
No.
MS VS Total
Fringe
No. C)(mm)
(inm) a-MS+(VSxL
C) (mm)
7
3 9
Scale division.)
(Note: MS = Main Scale reading. VS= Vemier
2. DE I'ERMINATION OFD
Figure. 4
bi-prism lens
micrometer ey epiece
Figure.5 (Ray Diagram)
3
B DETERMINATION OF /
n Mean/ 6
A
mm) S. No.
Ist position of lens LI d
Ist Image llnd Image (a-b)d- Jd,dz
(mm)
MS (mm)
VS T'otal MS VS Total
(mm) a=MS+(VSLC) (mm) b=MS+(VSLC
(mm) (mm)
At
Znd position of lens
L2
S. No. Ist Image IInd Image d=
(c-d) (mm)
MS VS Total MS VS Total (mm)
d=MS+(VSLC)
(mm) c-MS+(VS*LC) (mm) (inm)
(Tut)
D=........(mm)
From above tables we found that =.....(mm) d=...... nn)
Therefore, 2=Bd/D
found to be = (A).
Results: From above measurements wavelength of sodium light
Calculation for maximum probable error:
à=Bd/D -ßJd,dz/D
get
Taking log on both side and after differentiation we
Al!2 rAßIL+ !/2(4d, /d)+1/2(Ad, l d,)+ AD/ D
Page 5 of 6
VIVA VOCEQUESTIONS
I. What do you understand by interfeence ot ligt?
2,
What ae coherent and non coherent sources oflight? wave front. What phenomena out of
:Nplain interference by division of amplitude and division of
4.
these two are used in this experiment?
Is this experiment, satisfied ihe light is wave or partice? and Fresnel biprism experiment?
What is the difference between Young's double slit experiment
6. What a biprism?
7. What central maxima and how to find width of' it?
8. Why slit should be narrow and vertical in experinent?
Y What if we use white light instead of monochromatic light?
10. What is a fringe?
EXPERIMENT NO0. -3
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
OBJECT:
To find the specific rotation of cane- suear solution by a polarimeter at room te
using Bi-quartz device.
APPARATUS USED:
beaker
Apolarimeter, cane sugar, a physical balance, weight box, a measuring cylinder, a
and a white light source.
INTRODUCTION:
Ihe study of optical activity of liquids began in the early 19th century by Biot and other
SCientists. They found that solutions of sugar and certain other naturally occurring chemicals
would rotate a beam of polarized light passing through the solution. They called such
substances optically active, a term which is still used. The instrument used to demonstrale Or
to measure this rotation is known as polarimeter.
FUNCTIONING OF POLARIMETER:
Schematic representation of the functioning of the polarimeter.
obeerve
Fig.l(a): When the sample tube is empty, the plares of polarizztion of the polarizing and the
analyzing prisms are same ie plane of polarization does not rotate (a-0) while passing
through empty space in air medium.
otbve
Fig.l (b): When the sample tuve has a solution of achiral (optically active) substance,
the plane of polarization of the emergent polarized light changes. One now needs to
rotate the analyzer prism so that its plane of polarization to coincide with the plane o
ne emergent light. This corresponds to the maximum intensity of the transmitted light.
The angle of rotation of analyser to pass plane polarized light is denoted by a (shown
by a curved arrow in the above Fig. 1(b)).
THEORY:
The ability to rotate light is termed optical activity and substances that exhibit this
property are called optically active substances. Optically active organic molecules have a
spiral structure like a right-handed or left-handed screw. It is this spiral nature of the
molecule, which rotates the plane of polarization of light passing through it. Right-handed
molecules willrotate the plane of polarization clockwise as viewed in the direction of the
If
beam, while left-handed molecules rotate the plane in a counter clockwise direction.
right-handed and left-handed species of a given molecule occurred with equal abundance,
solution.
then there would be no net effect on the polarization of light passing through the
always either
Though, naturall; ocuurring biclogica! molecules of a given specics are
compounds rotate
purely right-handed or purely left-handed. However, these enantiomer
direction. The degree to which a
light by exactly the same amount but in the opposite
rotates light may be used to determine a) he identity of the substance, b) the
substance
a krown substance in a
enantiomer purity of the substance or c) the concentration of
In order to observe rotation, the light which is passed through the solution must
solution.
polarized. Ordinary light has waves which are oriented in alldirections as shown
be plane
(a). Plane polarized light is made up of waves which are oriented parallel to a
in fig. 2
defined plane as shown in fig. 2 (b).
Plane Polarized Light
Ordinary light
Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (b)
opticalk actie
nnteial
Fig. 3
This is because, when light interacts with matter, two basic phenomena occur, namely,
absorption and the decrease in the velocity of light. Absorption is the decrease in the
intensity of light because a part of the incident light is absorbed by the material. The
decrease in velocity of light is due to refractive index of the material, because the velocity
of light is slower in the material than in the vacuum.
FORMULAUSED:
The specific rotation of cane-sugar solution is given by
RAY DIAGRAM:
(Must be on first left page by
pencil)
Polarimeter
Used to measure the optical
rotation of molecules in solution
The Polarimeter Tube +900
an optIcally active contatains
(such as an Amino substance
Acid) in
a -900
solution which causes
the plane of polarized
ight to rotate. 1800
Analyzer, A Rotatable
Polarizer- Thiz Sens
is rotated until no
ight goes through
Polarimeter Tube the second lens.
(10 cm lorng) The angle is then
measured to determine
the optical rotation
of the Amin Aid
soution.
Fixed Polarizer
Cannot Rotate Notice that the plane of the
vibrating light has changed
Light Source after going through the
Polarimeter Tube.
RESULTS:
0/ 1.c =0.V/ Lm
Viva- Voce:
Q1. How does polarized light differ from the ordinary light?
Q2. What do you understand by polarized light and the plane of polarization?
Q3. What are the factors on which the optical activity of a substance depends?
Q4. How does the optical activity depend on the state of the substance?
Q5. Does specific rotation depend on the wavelength of light used and
temperature of the solution?
1Experiment No.- 4
OBJECTIVE: To verily STEFAN'S LAW
Stefn's law by clectrical
APPARATUS
6V
battery, D.CUSED:
. method.
6V,6W, RheostatVol(100tmetohm).
er, D.C. ammeter, Electric bulb
(having tungsten filament) of
FORMULA USED:
P=CT
Log1oP = cLogT +
Where, P=Total power Log.C
emittedto 4by a body at
opower of Tclose
T=temperature
C= some ofa body temperature1,
constant depending on the material and area of such a
THEORY:
For body.
black bodies,
Stefan's law is
Where E is the net E= a(T-To).
temperature T and amount of radiation emitted per second per
constant. A surrounded by another unit area by a body at
can write similar relation can also hold forbody at temperature To. o is
bodies that are not black. In caled Stefan's
such case, we
P= C(T-T'),
Where P is the total power
To. o is a poweremitted
by a body at
temperature
material and area of such a body. closed to 4 andtemperature
quite T
C is some suTOunded by another at
Further the relation can be constant depending on the
If T>> T.
P= CT|-T°/ T), expressed as
(e.g., T = 1500K, and T, ~ 300K), we
P= CT' can write
Or
Log..P =
The graph between LogoP oLog. + LogC
T
and Log.oT should be a
Therefore, in order to verify Stefan's straight line
law, we have to measurewhose the
slope gives a.
parameters: following two
() Power radiated P: We use tungsten bulb as the
experiment and in the steady state, the electricalradiating
power
body in this
P= VI is radiated
(neglecting power loss in the leads and through the gas in the bulb).
(i) Temperature of the radiating body, T: In
experiment we need to measure the
temperature of tungsten filament. This is achieved by measuring the resistance
of filament, R1 and then using the relation
R=R,(1+ at +Bt)
where coefficient a and Bare known for tungsten. One serious limitation arises in the
measurement of R (resistance of filament at 0°C or 273K, one can write R, or Ry).
restsze
uS In ponts the valueRo
diagram.withglows
At * usine is From in
high
o graph
Be base bulbbulb
This
800K
factor
andobtanea.
values
time.
the
ead
en the thetheRg.
circuit a
obtain
2s approxímatey
(=R) using
2 to of a every
wellstage by thatgives
condition to
be thesoldered stage R and
smaller
R, can 1) suchwhich bulbFrom
2s the in
resistance of R=R.) (Figure that glow filament
above adjust
are glow found across
measurement note R(V).
(R.)
is becomes wires we below
stege law given just is we RR= V the
resistance
filament of 3.9
R./R,= voltage
value Stefan's two for current,
V/I graph, value andof
thisresistance figure T
I ratio
the and temperature
(VI)
Therefore
accurate T a measuring
givetheat
ternperature of thebulb, V ofvalues R. from
=
I, vs. Re/3.9
=
R
willmeaure diagram in recordandR./R R/3.9 P
lead the ofV increased
power
more
273K. shown decreasing
ratio acrossto From light, the
of R.JRa value deduce
deduce
VIwe contribution Circuit
as
have
white
R. and at voltmeter the800K.
is
I
current.
calculate connections
we and current
gloingthat we we
dazzling
factor. R,, from at RK,Log.T.
against
LogP
values,
with increasing
resistance
Small temperature find f1lament
connect Then,
PROCEDURE:
to sasCompared
computed the to Thereforeget I or
veryorder order
bulb.
of
the and/3.9)
Make time. to
to different
filament Now,
In Or enough V
R,
orderIn each these
1. 2 (or
3.
te No.
OBSERVATIONS:
Table I: For R, & RÍ
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5
7. 7
8 8
9. 9
10. 10
11. 11
12. 12
Plot
RESULT:
CALCULATIONS:
yz-y1/x-X}=g=
Slope =
the Table
graph Temp.
I500 14001300 1200 1100
!000 90800 700 600 S0400 300
20100 3:
between For
plotting
PRECAUTIONS:
Voce:
Viva-
5.Connection 4. 3. 2. L
5. 4. 3. 2. I. ChooseIncrcase
Note Use
Define
Define CanWhat What the
down
the the bulb
thermal
emissive is is the having
rheostat current
absorptive radiation
the should
voltage
radiationspeed be of tungsten
power in
of tight.readingsteps.
appropriate
power with
heat?
of filament.
which
travel a
of after
body?
a
through
range.
every
body?thermal
change
radiation
vacuum?
in
current
travel?