Humbling Humanity

Stephen B. Gray
In the intellectual childhood of Homo sapiens, before science appeared, humanity had the self-centered view
that it was the center and purpose of the universe, created and cared for by God, like a baby by its parents. As
scientific knowledge grew, this notion became obsolete, but monotheists still think we are uniquely favored.
The first and greatest shocks to the original view were heliocentrism and Darwinian evolution. Both had
influences far beyond their initial scientific motivation, and both were strenuously opposed by believers in the
supernatural. But those humbling developments were only two of many that upset the traditional picture.
Another reason why we should not feel specially favored is the danger that nature presents to us. People had
long been aware of the threats from disease, fires, crop failure, and earthquakes, among other threats, but
additional menaces became apparent as earth’s environment and history became better understood. It is now
undeniable that the accidents we are vulnerable to have no purpose or meaning. This essay will cover scientific
developments that should put us in our place.

Observational Science

The Flood: When the Old Testament was written, roughly from 1500 BCE to 300 BCE, most of the world
was unknown. This naiveté allowed the writer of Exodus, having no knowledge of great heights such as 8000-
meter mountains, to assert that a flood covered the entire world. Genesis 7:19-20, “And the waters prevailed
exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered. Fifteen
cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.” (Fifteen cubits is about 22 feet!) The
Israelites’ narrow view of the world influenced later Bible authors, who ignored the fact that most societies had
never heard of Jesus, already having entrenched religions of their own. The Bible reflects deep provincialism.
Earth’s Size: The ancient Greeks proved that the Earth is a sphere of immense size. They also estimated
even greater distances, such as the distance to the Moon.1 The realization of our insignificant had begun.
Earth’s Shape: Aristotle (384-322 BCE) found that the Earth is not flat by noting that as one travels north,
different parts of the heavens are visible. He also observed that during an eclipse of the Moon, the Earth’s
shadow on it is a circular arc.2 The Bible-centered view was flatly contradicted.
Earth’s Motion: The Israelites along with most other ancient peoples thought the Earth was fixed and the
heavenly bodies in the celestial sphere rotated around it once per day. The idea that the Earth rotated and
everything else was relatively stationary was a major step in reducing mankind to a much more modest position
in the universe. One cannot blame the Israelites for this self-centered view, any more than one can blame a year-
old child for the same thing, but God should have known better.
Earth’s Position-1: Copernicus suggested that the center of the universe was the Sun, not the Earth, and
started the modern science of astronomy. Kepler observed other planets’ orbits and developed mathematical
laws governing them. Galileo observed phases of Venus, proving heliocentrism beyond any doubt. He watched
Jupiter’s main moons, showing for the first time that not everything revolves around the Earth. The old view
that humans inhabit one of three layers in the universe, with heaven above and hell below, both of which exist
in relation to us, is utterly obsolete. The ordinariness of Earth’s position in the universe is called the Copernican
Principle, which has recently been precisely confirmed.
Larger Distances-1: The distance to the Sun was found to be vastly greater than the Earth’s size or
anything previously measured. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo established that the Sun, the source of all
known energy and life, is a star, and is therefore like the thousands visible with the naked eye. The Church took
violent exception to these ideas because it moved humanity from center stage, diminishing the importance of
God and Jesus. They had no idea that this dethroning would continue so far as it has gone.
Larger Distances-2: Ptolemy (c. 87-150 CE) computed the first truly great distance. Using assumptions
that we now know to be false, he made a calculation that the Universe, which he thought was limited to Earth,
Sun, Moon, and five planets, has a radius of about 75 million miles. His measurement was much too small, but
it was the first sign that the universe is incomparably larger than the Earth.3
The Universe Does Not Revolve Around Us: In ancient times, humanity was thought to be put at the
center of the universe by God. During the Renaissance, Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo found that the Earth is
not the stationary center of the solar system, contrary to the view of the Church. Galileo’s observations of
Jupiter’s moons in 1610 proved that they orbited the planet, hence not all astronomical bodies revolve around
the Earth. The new concept that the earth was not fixed, but rotated while the sun and stars are stationary, was a
revolutionary step in correcting human self-importance. Threatened by findings that contradicted its primitive
theology, the Catholic Church chased science out of southern Europe.4
Even Larger Distances: Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846) was the first to accurately measure the distance to a
star.5 To get an idea of scale, let us start with the height of a human and compound distances, Earth’s diameter
is over 7,600,000 times as large as a person. The Sun’s diameter is 109 times the Earth’s. Distance to the nearest
star is 29,000,000 times the Sun’s diameter. Our galaxy’s diameter is 24,000 times the distance to that star.
Edwin Hubble found that the Andromeda nebula is a galaxy separate from our own. Its distance from here is
about 2,000,000 light-years.6 (A light-year is 5.88 trillion miles.) The observable Universe’s diameter is
270,000 times our galaxy’s diameter. In terms of ratios, we are much closer to the size of a proton than to the
Universe. Our presence is insignificant.
Earth’s Position-2: Around 1920 it was found that the Sun is not near the center of the Milky Way
Galaxy, which at that time was thought to be the entire universe. A new unit of distance was needed to measure
vast astronomical scales: the light-year, equal to 5.87 trillion miles or 9.46*10 12 kilometers. Our galaxy is about
100,000 light-years in diameter, with our solar system about midway from the center to the edge. We orbit the
galaxy’s center in about 225 million years. The galaxy contains 200 to 400 billion stars, of which the Sun is just
one. Later, in the 1920’s, Hubble found that there are many other galaxies, and they are receding from us. These
findings made it clear that we inhabit one small planet around one unexceptional star in one typical galaxy out
of many billions. The part of the universe we can potentially see is 42 billion light-years in radius (assuming it
has a flat geometry).
The Observable Universe: The potentially visible universe extends in all directions from earth and is, by
one calculation, 46 billion light-years in radius. 7 The universe has no center, and we occupy an unremarkable
position in it. This is the “principle of mediocrity,” where mediocre here means unexceptional, not second-rate.
The universe may even be infinite in extent, with almost all of it forever beyond our powers of observation.
That idea is profoundly anti-intuitive, but it is not contrary to any known theory. If God fine-tuned everything to
make human life important, he misled us with “evidence” that we do not matter at the cosmic scale. He created
regions we can never see, let alone communicate with or visit.
The Number of Stars: There are an estimated 1023 stars (one hundred billion trillion) just in the observable
Universe, and probably many more in its distant parts. 8 If we represent each potentially visible star by a typical
grain of sand,9 the sand would fill the Grand Canyon more than twice! If you’ve seen the Canyon, imagining
that number of sand grains is almost impossible. (I computed it but I can hardly believe it!) Are we to think that
the creator of the Universe is concerned with one insignificant species to whom he sacrificed his only son?
That’s worse than ridiculous. The “argument from incredulity,” often considered a fallacy, is indispensable in
extreme cases such as this. 10 Claims that are silly enough can be ignored.
The Universe is Expanding: Hubble’s observations of galaxies showed that the universe is expanding in a
way that allows its time of origin to be computed.11 The origin, the Big Bang, occurred 13.8 billion years before
the present, trivializing our familiar scale of time. It was probably not an instantaneous singularity that would
need a supernatural cause, such as God. 12 The expansion makes humanity ever more inconsequential.
Time Scales: Some Jews and Christians utilize the Old Testament genealogies to prove that the age of the
earth is less than 10,000 years. That figure disagrees drastically with ages determined from geology, physics,
paleontology, and astronomy. The actual ages, now known within 2%, are 13.8 billion years for the universe
and about 4.54 billion for the earth. 13 If we take 100,000 years before the present for the origin of Homo
sapiens, we have existed for less than 1/100,000 the age of the universe. Recorded history began about 5000
years ago, roughly one millionth the age of the earth. Enormous cosmic time scales have no divine purpose. A
theist could say that the universe has to be at least its present age so that enough heavy elements exist to allow
life. That is correct, but the 100 billion or so other galaxies are not necessary for our existence. The theist might
also argue that God made the universe this big so we would understand his full magnificence. Does God have a
neurotic need such that he needs to make us feel puny?
Other Planets: Astronomers have found more than 4000 planet candidates in other solar systems, with
more being discovered regularly.14 The search for signs of life elsewhere continues but we have found nothing
yet. If we are extremely lucky and find a transmitting civilization, the effect on Bible belief will be interesting
to see. Would extraterrestrials have heard of Jesus, God’s “only begotten son” who came to earth to save our
species? In the unlikely event that they have, they would probably wonder why God’s attention was restricted to
one tiny planet and to only one small, undistinguished ethnic group. They might also wonder if we are insane.
Dark Matter and Energy: The presence of dark matter is inferred by otherwise unexplained gravitational
effects. Dark energy was postulated by noting that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Their existence
shows that the earth and every familiar form of matter, including our bodies, are less than 0.5% of the mass-
energy of the universe; the rest is something alien. Due to the accelerated expansion, the whole universe will
eventually be a cold, empty vacuum. Dark energy and matter do not affect our lives or our history, which puts
us in an even more irrelevant position. It shows beyond reasonable doubt that our existence is an accident.
Fantastic Cosmic Entities: The universe contains a variety of phenomena that are vastly larger and more
energetic than the human scale. Besides the expanding Universe, other phenomena include planet collisions,
multiple star systems, white dwarfs, red dwarfs, supergiant stars, cosmic rays, pulsars, quasars, blazars, neutron
stars, novae, supernovae, hypernovae, magnetars, black holes, black hole collisions, gravity waves, monster
galaxies, galaxy clusters and superclusters, galaxy mergers, galactic lensing, gamma ray bursts, and radio-wave
bursts. In light of these phenomena, the notion that the universe was created by a magic being who watches and
attends to humans is beyond bizarre. Recently it was found that the center of our galaxy contains a black hole as
heavy as four million suns. Galaxies have a habitable zone: stars and planets too close or too far from the center
cannot support life. This and the many other known restrictions that limit life to extremely special conditions
and locations show that the universe is “fine tuned” in only a limited sense, and is a weak argument for God.
The Big Bang: This hypothesis is now established as fact by many lines of evidence. It further dethroned
humanity, because the universe was found to be extremely old and because the galaxy we inhabit is only one of
billions, and is not exceptional. We are a mere dust mote on the large scale, hardly worthy of God’s notice, let
alone the sacrifice of his supposed only begotten son.
Energy: The entire Earth receives about one two-billionth of the energy emitted by the Sun. Humankind,
even with its profligate use of energy, uses a small fraction of that. The emissions of all those stars makes our
consumption of energy trivial.
Interstellar travel: The plan to send thousands of tiny spacecraft to the nearest star may not be possible. 15
Collision of a spacecraft, moving at the expected 20% of light-speed, with even a microgram-size speck of dust
could destroy the craft. There is plenty of dust in interstellar space.16 The most remote galaxies are about three
billion times farther away than that nearest star. We have learned an amazing amount about the Universe by
remote observation, but that does not compare to visiting – which is probably impossible.
Other Universes: Cosmologists are actively speculating about other universes. If they exist, we may have
even less importance in the largest picture than suggested above. Scientists are seriously exploring the idea that
there was no first instant and the possibility of time before the Big Bang. That would eliminate the idea that
God was necessary for the universe to begin. If God can be without a beginning, the physical universe can as
well; the latter is a simpler idea. The universe’s natural prehistory is mostly speculative at this time.
Fine Tuning and the Future: Christians say that the constants of physics must have their precise present
values to allow life to exist, proving that God carefully adjusted them. Among objections are: 1) An omnipotent
being could create life under any set of constants, so fine tuning is an argument against theism; 2) Fine tuning
has unaccountably left the Earth inhabitable only over a fraction of its surface and in an infinitesimal fraction of
the Universe’s volume; 3) Fine tuning does not explain why our environment is so dangerous or our bodies and
minds are so imperfect; 4) It does not explain why the Universe has a finite lifetime. Although extremely long
by human standards, the remaining time is infinitesimal compared to the eternity proposed by Christianity.

Theoretical Science

Laws of motion: Newton’s laws describe how bodies attract other bodies with the force of gravity, with no
contact needed. Metaphysical objections to action-at-a-distance were voided, and God no longer had to push the
planets around. But Newton, a Christian, thought that God has to intervene to keep the planets in stable orbits.
That view is obsolete, but the very long-term stability, long after we will be gone, is not certain.
Maxwell’s theories: In 1861, James Clerk Maxwell unified the phenomena of electricity and magnetism,
establishing another abstract physical theory. In 1865, he realized that his idea predicted that light has a certain
velocity, one far beyond human experience. Physicists and electrical engineers confirm that velocity every day.
Einstein’s relativity: This violated our intuition more than anything else until quantum theory arrived. If you
are walking forward at four miles per hour on a train whose speed is 20 m.p.h., your speed as seen from outside
the train is not 24 m.p.h, but slightly less! The theory has been validated by innumerable experiments. He found
that we are not in a special frame of reference; our position has no special status, nor does our velocity. The
laws of physics are the same for any observer, human or otherwise, within broad limits. Moreover, our intuition,
supposed given to us by God, is wrong in most situations which humans have not experienced previously.
General Relativity (GR) and Quantum Theory (QT): These two twentieth-century developments drive a
wedge between human intuition and proven theory. Both theories are completely successful at prediction, but
are impossible to grasp intuitively - especially QT. Their practical success, contrasted with their philosophical
opacity, shows that our minds cannot really understand the world. (Evolution had no reason to allow us to; it’s
not clear why we should be good at anything so abstract.) The fact that QT and GR are incompatible at a basic
level shows that our minds may not be fully equipped to deal with reality. Today, physics is in a chaotic state but
is progressing rapidly.17,18 So far, no theory explains everything.
Extra Dimensions: Cosmologists and physicists speculate about the existence of more dimensions than the
familiar three plus time. The field of string theory, an effort to combine GR and QT, requires more dimensions.
If they exist, our existence and understanding are further marginalized.
The Multiverse: This is speculative, but cosmologists take the possibility seriously. Several ideas are being
investigated.19 One is that the known Universe, only part of which we can ever see, extends to infinity. Another
is that it’s just a tiny speck in something much larger, one of trillions or even an infinity of “Universes.”
The Mystery of Time: Even after Einstein, the phenomenon of time is a mystery. Most of physics would
be unaffected if time was reversed. Time “flowing” is not a useful intuition because flow depends on time.
Future of the Earth and Universe: These are not permanent. The Universe might end in “heat death,”
where the entire cosmos becomes cold and sterile.20 Well before that, the Sun’s output will increase and make
the oceans and atmosphere boil off.21 Earth will become red-hot and sterile. If intelligent life still exists, it may
migrate to Mars (after adapting it for advanced life), and eventually move even farther from the Sun.
Extra-Terrestrial life: There may be primitive life, existing either now or in the distant past, on Mars and/or
certain moons of Jupiter and Saturn. That finding would quickly put an end to the notion, favored by Christians,
that the origin of life must have come from an act of God. As life on Earth is found in increasingly extreme
environments, the chance of life existing elsewhere is improving. 22 Much more revolutionary, both for religion
and humankind, would be the discovery of extra-terrestrial intelligence. 23 That would revolutionize philosophy,
religion, and science. That and/or finding a multiverse would be the ultimate humbling of humanity.
Our knowledge is limited: The most abstract, impersonal, absolute, difficult fields of study are mathematics
and theoretical physics, but even they are not fully absolute. In mathematics, Gödel’s incompleteness theorem
says that there are mathematical statements that are meaningful but can never be proved true or false. 24 That is
worrying, because all of science depends on the reliability of mathematics. In physics, we have quantum
uncertainty, chaos theory, and extreme complexity, all of which limit our ability to predict. These limitations
show that our understanding is not complete and never can be.
Simulated Universe: An extremely advanced civilization might have created an entire artificial universe as
a simulation in their “ultracomputers,” like we use supercomputers to simulate events and phenomena that seem
complex to us. If true, our capabilities look trivial in comparison. This speculation, as implausible as it may
appear, is taken seriously by some scientists. It might solve some deep mysteries in physics and cosmology, but
it would imply that we know little or nothing about truly basic physical laws.25
Dangers from Space
Humanity could be destroyed by astronomical phenomena over which we have no control. The most likely
is an impact with a large meteor or comet. They arrive at extremely high speeds and may give no warning.
Several huge collisions have occurred in recent times. The first, a small asteroid that hit 20,000 to 50,000 years
ago, resulted in the mile-wide Arizona Meteor Crater. 26 The second, the Tunguska disaster, hit an unoccupied
part of Siberia in 1908; its exact cause is not known, but if it hit near a city, millions would have been killed. 27
Another meteor hit Russia quite recently, damaging thousands of buildings and injuring over 1000 people.
These events occurred an instant ago in geological time. An impact comparable to the dinosaur extinction event
65 million years ago could kill most or all earthly life, and even that huge span is less than 3% of the time life
has existed on earth. During that span of 3.5 billion years, four or more colossal extinction events occurred.28
Over longer times, dangers include a giant coronal mass ejection from the sun, the ongoing steady increase
in its radiation, and a major change in the earth’s orbit or its axial orientation. The latter two will not happen in
the near future, but their possibility shows that humanity may be helpless to ward off large-scale disasters.
Extremely unlikely but still possible calamities include a supernova within about 30 light-years, a gamma
ray burst aimed at us closer than about 6500 light-years, and a wandering black hole coming within a billion
miles or so. Gamma-ray bursts are rare but could occur with little warning. Even with several years’ notice, we
might be unable to prevent the collapse of civilization.

Earthly Life

Evolution: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred R. Wallace (1823-1913) found that evolution occurred
by natural selection, a process sometimes called “survival of the fittest.” The theory changed the status of Homo
sapiens, from a supernatural creation of God to the result of purely natural processes. This was the greatest
demotion of humanity since the earth was removed from the center of the universe. The theory predicts that the
human body contains multiple defects. Some are well known to the informed public, but some are not, such as
the reproductive systems in both sexes, serious problems in the eye, mouth and throat, and the bizarre routing of
certain veins and nerves. (Evolution proves that the biblical Adam and Eve did not exist, so their “original sin”
was impossible. That implies there is no need for Jesus. This is the principal reason why Christians oppose
evolution. The designer, if any, should have flunked design class.29 Supposedly omnipotent, he could have done
much better.)
Species: The vast diversity of species on the earth was not realized until biology became an established
science. The estimated number of species ranges from 5 million to 100 million, with only a small fraction
described so far. Further reducing our uniqueness, recent research shows that some species of primates and
large marine mammals share some of our higher mental functions. There is a continuous set of abilities and
features in the entire animal kingdom, all the way up to humans.30 Our “uniqueness” is a matter of degree.
Soul and Vital Force: Brain researchers have found no evidence of a soul or any supernatural phenomena.
We are smarter than other animals but have no magical spiritual essence. There is a great deal of evidence that
specific brain areas accomplish specific types of mental processes such as recognizing faces. It is certain that
the mind is completely dependent on the brain, so when the brain dies, the mind dies. There is no sign or
possibility of an afterlife. The body is destroyed soon after death, so physical resurrection is impossible. There
is no evidence that anyone has ever come back after death. Further, biologists have found no vital force in the
human body, or anything that can’t be explained at the molecular level by chemistry. At the lowest level of
explanation, we are just complex biochemical processes with no supernatural essence. (At higher levels, other
explanations are needed, but natural ones are more than satisfactory.) We are fully natural rather than Godlike
or special. The discovery of DNA has confirmed this beyond reasonable doubt.
Consciousness: This phenomenon presents a major mystery: there are both objective brain phenomena and
the subjective experiences associated with those phenomena. The latter cannot be observed, so it is difficult or
impossible to analyze them using scientific means. This is called the “hard problem.”31
Animals: Ethologists (those who study animal behavior) have become increasingly aware that higher animals
share with humans many more attributes than formerly realized. These properties include mourning, lusting,
planning, caring, experiencing pain, tool use and manufacture, autism, imitation, word and face recognition, ans
primitive forms of language. Humans are different from animals, but not so completely as biblicists would wish.32
The Environment: The Earth’s bounty is limited, and it will be exceeded in some respects if the population
continues to increase. There are already shortages of fresh water, edible fish, tillable land, topsoil, certain rare but
essential metals, food in some areas, and other goods we depend on. Fossil fuels will eventually be scarce. We are
helpless in this matter unless we take strong action, 33 unlikely in the current U.S. political climate. We mitigate
shortages and natural disasters not with prayer but by using naturalistic means such as antibiotics, medical
procedures, sanitation, and conservation. We use these measures to prepare for earthquakes, volcanoes, droughts,
landslides, and floods. Their damage can sometimes be reduced by exerting great effort and using scientific
knowledge.34 We are not the masters of the world, and we degrade it by being indifferent or careless.
Dangers from the Earth
Closer to home, humanity’s home planet could cripple us in ways we cannot control. Such disasters might
not cause extinction of the species, but could bring great devastation. People have recently come to realize that
humanity can have disastrous effects on itself, and some already have serious consequences. It speaks poorly of
God’s planning that the earth is in trouble, partly from our carelessness. Among the dangers:
Bacteria, viruses Pandemics Tornadoes Volcanoes
Earthquakes Forest, brush fires Tsunamis Windstorms
Quakes are in a special category because they are guaranteed to continue for eons at unpredictable times.
The realization that the earth could kill millions should destroy the idea that we are specially privileged.
Dangers from Global Warming
Agriculture degradation Heat waves, increased Ocean level rise
Coral reef destruction Hurricanes, stronger Species migration
Droughts, more severe Insect plagues Resource wars
Flooding, increased Methane releases Unpredictable weather
Global warming is disputed by right-wingers and some of the ignorant public, who prefer ideology to well-
established scientific findings. Ideologues are trying to support irresponsible capitalism or to defend God.
Dangers from Human Violence
Drug addiction Slavery War, conventional
Riots and revolts Terrorism War, nuclear
Dangers from Ourselves, Other
Antibiotic resistance Nuclear waste Rainforest destruction
Biodiversity loss Ocean acidification Rare metal shortages
Desertifaction Oceanic dead zones Shortages, fossil fuel
Drug addiction Ocean garbage patches Shrotages, other resources
Fish stock depletion Oil spills Soil salinity increase
Fracking-induced quakes Overpopulation Species extinction
Habitat destruction Ozone hole enlargement Topsoil erosion
Inequality, severe Pollution, air War, conventional
 Invasive species spread Pollution, mining War, nuclear
Monoculture farming Pollution, water

Summary
Compared to the scale of the Universe, there are huge contrasts in time (the interval since the Big Bang
compared to the arrival of Homo sapiens), in space (the Earth’s size vs. the Universe’s), in numbers (the total
count of stars compared to the single one we depend on), and in energy (what we use compared to what is
emitted by a star such as the Sun). We also have a discrepancy in understanding (the unknown complexity of
how the world and the Universe work, compared the little we know). Our status is also contingent on natural or
human-made disasters not causing our extinction.
We are part of a vast, indifferent cosmos, almost none of which we can visit, affect, or even see. We cannot
control most of the disasters that beset us now or will in the near future. Much of the cosmos and many of its
phenomena are beyond current understanding. We are an afterthought in the larger scheme, so it’s appropriate
not to feel self-important, as monotheisms would have us do. With this perspective, humility is called for. It
could help us put our differences aside and avoid deadly conflicts such as wars. Of what importance is the
exact position of an international border compared to the state of our species and the whole planet?
This situation need not be depressing. It should encourage us to value our present lives rather than waiting
for death and a nonexistent afterlife. We have no importance at the cosmic scale. We are vulnerable to disasters
- but should feel proud to be an integral part of this colossal structure. So far as we know, we are alone, so our
purpose in life should be kindness to our fellow humans, to our fellow species, and to the earth. It is religion,
not science, that insists that Homo sapiens is unique in the eyes of God, an unsupported notion that distracts our
attention from life in the present. The humbling of humanity may reduce our alleged importance to the universe
and to “God,” but it increases our real value, which is to each other. That is all we need to lead a rewarding and
worthwhile life.
Some of this material is explained more completely in my 935-page encyclopedia, Christianity in Ruins,
available through Amazon. Also see the companion Web site, www.fight-religion.com .
1
“Measuring the Solar System,” http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/gkastr1.html
2
“Determining the earth’s size,”
http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/GTECH201/Lectures/Lec6concepts/Datums/ Determining%20the
%20earths%20size.htm
3
“An Earth-Centered View of the Universe,” KhanAcademy,
https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/big-bang/how-did-big-bang-change/a/
claudius-ptolemy
4
“History of the center of the Universe,” Wikipedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_center_of_the_Universe
5
“61 Cygni,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61_Cygni
6
“Distance to Andromeda,” Universe Today, http://www.universetoday.com/30716/distance-to-andromeda/
7
“How Big is the Universe?” Space.com, http://www.space.com/24073-how-big-is-the-universe.html
8
“How Many Stars Are in the Universe?” http://www.space.com/26078-how-many-stars-are-there.html (This
estimate has recently increased.)
9
I define a typical sand grain to be 1/3 mm in diameter, packed to about 35,000 grains per cubic centimeter.
10
“Argument from incredulity,” http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Argument_from_incredulity
11
“The Expanding Universe,” Sloan Digital Sky Survey,
http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr1/en/astro/universe/universe.asp
“No Big Bang? Quantum equation predicts universe has no beginning,” https://phys.org/news/2015-02-big-
12

quantum-equation-universe.html
13
“IPS Official Statement on the Ancient Age of the Eartha and Universe,” International Planetarium Society,
Inc., http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?age
14
“1284 new planets: Kepler mission announces largest collection ever discovered,” Phys.org,
https://phys.org/news/2016-05-planets-kepler-mission-largest.html
15
“Mission to Alpha Centauri,” Scientific American, March 2017, p. 30.
16
“At what speed does the interstellar medium become lethal to high speed flight?”
http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q2720.html
17
“List of unsolved problems in physics,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
The present confusion in fundamental physics is much deeper than the list implies. It seems that every month
or so a leading theoretician proposes a radical answer to this difficulty.
18
Halper, Phil and Ali Nayeri, “Before the Big Bang,” p. 119-139 in John W. Loftus, editor, Christianity in the
Light of Science, Prometheus Books, 2016.
19
“5 Reasons We May Live in a Multiverse,” http://www.space.com/18811-multiple-universes-5-theories.html
20
“What exactly is the heat death of the universe and where can I find out more?”
http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae181.cfm
21
“When will the Earth lose its oceans?” https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131216142310.htm
22
“Extremophiles and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life,”
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdf/10.1089/153110702762027862
23
“The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence,” https://astrosociety.org/edu/publications/tnl/20/20.html
24
“What is Gödel’s Theorem?” https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-godels-theorem/
25
“Are We Living in a Computer Simulation?” Scientific American,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/
26
“Mystery of Arizona’s Meteor Crater Solved,” http://www.space.com/834-mystery-arizona-meteor-crater-
solved.html
27
“The Tunguska explosion,” http://earthsky.org/space/what-is-the-tunguska-explosion This was probably a
comet or asteroid that vaporized in the atmosphere. It flattened many square miles of forest but no impact
body was found.
28
“Meteor Hits Russia Feb 15, 2013,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpmXyJrs7iU This event damaged
thousands of buildings and injured over 1000 people, but it was tiny compared to many others, including the
one that hit Arizona.
29
Juan, Stephen. “What’s the best way to improve the human body?” TheRegister,
https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/12/the_odd_body_body_improvements/
30
Gazzaniga, Michael. 2008. Human: The Science of What Makes Us Unique. HarperCollins.
31
“Hard problem of consciousness,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness
32
There are too many good resources on animal behavior to list. Do the appropriate searches.
33
“The six natural resources most drained by our 7 billion people,”
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2011/oct/31/six-natural-resources-population
34
We know that over the long run, quakes are unavoidable, because Earth’s tectonic plates are in constant
motion.