University of the Assumption

Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San Fernando, 2000 Pampanga, Philippines

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
and
SOCIETY
Submitted by:
Lalu, Michelle JoyJerille E.
Magat, Camille Anne D.
Malate, Kimberly C.
Manabat, Angelika Mae C.
Trinidad, Ann Alythea S.
(BSBA-MM2A)

Submitted to:
Mrs. Maria Theresa F. Angeles
(Instructor)
Hubble’s Theory of Expanding Universe
(Mid 1900s)

In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe was not static. Rather, it
was expanding; a find that revealed the universe was apparently born in a Big Bang. The theory,
developed from the observed red shifts of celestial bodies, that the space between galaxies is
expanding, so that they appear to recede from us at velocities that increase with their distance.
Hubble showed that the rate a galaxy is moving away from us is roughly proportional to its
distance from us. The existence of an expanding universe implies that the cosmos has evolved
from a dense concentration of matter into the present broadly spread distribution of galaxies.
Fred Hoyle, an English cosmologist, was the first to call this process the big bang. Hoyle intended
to disparage the theory, but the name was so catchy it gained popularity. It is somewhat
misleading, however, to describe the expansion as some type of explosion of matter away from
some particular point in space. Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession
velocity – which is now known as Hubble's law, proving that there is a direct relationship
between the speeds of distant galaxies and their distances from Earth. The observation that
galaxies are moving away from the Earth at speeds proportional to their distance.
Then, in 1998, the Hubble Space Telescope's observations of very distant supernovae
revealed that a long time ago, the universe was expanding more slowly than it is today. In other
words, the expansion of the universe was not slowing due to gravity, but instead inexplicably
was accelerating. The name for the unknown force driving this accelerating expansion is dark
energy, and it remains one of the greatest mysteries in science.
 Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang was not an explosion in space, as the theory's name might suggest. The
space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distances between
comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion in space, but rather an
expansion of space. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was born as a very hot, very
dense, single point in space. One second after the Big Bang, the temperature had fallen to about
a trillion degrees Fahrenheit, and protons and neutrons appeared on the scene. Then came
several minutes of nucleosynthesis (nuclear fusion), when these subatomic particles fused to
form the nuclei of the first atoms- mostly hydrogen and helium. Around 13.8 billion years ago,
space itself expanded and cooled down, eventually allowing atoms to form and clump together
to build the stars and galaxies we see today. At this time, all matter was compacted into a very
small ball with infinite density and intense heat called Singularity. Suddenly, the Singularity
began expanding, and the universe as we know it began.
A dominant idea that connects the dots between the Big Bang and the universe we find
today is called inflation. This is the notion that during the first roughly 10 to the minus 34
seconds, the universe underwent exponential expansion, doubling in size at least 90 times.
During this early stage, matter was in a much different state than it is now.
 Hubble’s Law

Edwin Powell Hubble

Hubble's inferred that galaxies were similar to each other in size so those that appeared
smaller must be further away. By plotting the velocity of the galaxies against their distance he
came across an interesting relationship. Hubble's brilliant observation was that the redshift of
galaxies/andromeda nebula was directly proportional to the distance of the galaxy from earth.
The redshift-versus-distance relationship known as Hubble's Law. That meant that things farther
away from Earth were moving away faster. In other words, the universe must be expanding. He
announced his finding in 1929. The ratio of distance to redshift was 170 kilometers/second per
light year of distance, now called Hubble's constant.
Hubble's distance-velocity relationship for galaxies based on his original data. This is
interpreted as evidence for an expanding Universe. If you study the below plot, you will see that
the more distant a galaxy is, on average, the faster it is receding from us. In fact, Hubble realized
he could fit a linear relationship to his data, as shown by the pale blue line of best fit. The slope
of this line is a Hubble constant H0. This relationship is expressed mathematically as:
 v∝d
so: v = H0d (2.2)
where H0 is Hubble's constant, v is the recession velocity and d is the distance.

The exact value of the Hubble constant is somewhat uncertain, but is generally believed
to be around 70 kilometers per second for every megaparsec in distance, km/sec/Mpc. This
means that a galaxy 1 megaparsec away will be moving away from us at a speed of about 70
km/sec, while another galaxy 100 megaparsecs away will be receding at 100 times this speed.
These “recessional velocities” can be measured using the Doppler shift of light. So essentially,
the Hubble constant sets the rate at which the Universe is expanding.
 Is Theory of Expanding Universe,
a paradigm or, a shift?

What led to the scientific revolution is the changes that it gives to improve or develop a
corresponding theory. It begins in European Civilizations that empower the emergence of
development in different views of society and nature such as astronomy, mathematics, biology,
and all to enlighten a specific analysis.
Based on the study we’ve come up with the Theory of the Expanding Universe, it is
basically a shift. When we say it’s a shift, it doesn’t only mean the theory back then was rejected
wherein, it just found another appropriate explanation of why the universe expanded through
the years. In this case, the study sums up the step-by-step process of the expanded universe of
composing calculations of distance-velocity in view of distant galaxies, and celestial bodies in
space. The Big Bang theory explained thoroughly how the universe expanded yet not exploded
as other people might have expected. From the Theory of General Relativity – a paradigm that
predicted that the universe must either collapse, or contract has a paradigm shift when Hubble’s
observations justified that the universe completely expanded through and was not static. The
expansion of the universe was first seen and born as a Big Bang theory. Where it began as very
hot, tiny particles mixed with energy and lights shifted to cooled down. It started to expand,
create or increase a distance in comoving points.
Further, when other physicists and mathematicians did not agree with Albert Einstein’s
theory it led to the development of the theory of the expanding universe. Edwin Hubble and his
law explain the expansion that happened in the universe, supported by his mathematical
equations and observations of galaxies and the redshift in their spectral lines. Along with
expansion, Hubble found that the rate of the universe’s expansion was slowing because of the
effects of gravity and later on discovered that it is also because of inexplicably acceleration.
THEORY OF GENERAL RELATIVITY –
(Einstein’s Theory of Static Universe)

When Einstein developed his theory of gravity in the Theory of General Relativity, He
takes into consideration of cosmology. His equations said that the universe should be either
expanding or collapsing, yet he assumed that the universe was a static, homogeneous, spherical,
and spatially curved universe. However, this interpretation has one major problem: If gravitation
was the only active force, his universe would collapse. His original solution contained a constant
term, called the cosmological constant, which canceled the effects of gravity on very large scales,
and led to a static universe. Einstein found he could stabilize his model by adding a simple
constant term to the equations. “If this constant was not zero, the model would not have to
collapse under its own gravity”. In November 1915, Einstein described gravity with the 10 heavy-
handed field equations of general relativity, but what those equations basically say is — gravity is
what you get whenever spacetime is warped, bent or stretched. General relativity says that
when spacetime stretches around a massive object, the light travelling through that spacetime
stretches too. So, light that starts out one color ends up a slightly different (longer wavelength)
color after travelling through stretched spacetime. This color shift is called cosmological redshift
(red is the color with the longest wavelength) and the extent of redshift in their light lets us
measure how far away other galaxies are.
However, in an April 1931 report to the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Einstein finally
adopted a model of an expanding universe. In 1932 he teamed up with the Dutch theoretical
physicist and astronomer, Willem de Sitter, to propose an eternally expanding universe which
became the cosmological model generally accepted until the middle of the 1990s. To Einstein's
relief these two models no longer needed the cosmological constant. And when Hubble
discovered that the universe was expanding, Einstein called the cosmological constant his
"greatest mistake or blunder."
COMPARE and CONTRAST
Studying theories will always have the best contribution to find out questionable events that
existed in this world. It is easier to apprehend a specific study if someone provides accurate
information and analytics like the prominent scientists. Scientists who were concerned with
cosmology – Einstein and Hubble. They considered gravitation in their theory. The same thing, they
also used mathematical equations in different ways. They observed the redshift in light emitted by
nebulae known as galaxies. Later on, when Edwin Hubble already justified his theory was correct,
that was the time that Albert Einstein accepted that the universe was expanding. He abandoned his
idea of static cosmology and claiming it as his greatest blunder. Therefore, the universe is
expanding.
Hubble’s Theory of Expanding Universe contradicts Albert Einstein’s theoretical cosmology.
Einstein believed that the universe is static wherein, he provided a mathematical and gravitational
equation known as cosmological constant to support the claims. What if the constant was not zero;
the matter would not have to collapse under its own gravity? His interpretation concluded that if it’s
all about gravity thereupon, the universe will collapse. Furthermore, the frequency of light vibrations
and travels has an odd effect to determine how far an object in space is. The cosmological redshift
and the light measure the farther away of galaxies. His theory also says, when the spacetime
expands around the massive object, the light striking through space expands too. In contrast, Edwin
Hubble’s theory expound the expansion that happens in the universe. He found out that the universe
was not static. Thus, the farther any two galaxies were apart, the faster they continued to separate—
which was precisely Hubble's velocity-distance relation known as Hubble’s constant. His observation
of cosmological redshift in distant galaxies showed that they were receding away from us at huge
speed — which led to the discovery that the universe is expanding. Aside from that, the universe
expansion was reasonable as per the existence of the Big Bang Theory.

Disclaimer: All the information mentioned above were search from trusted websites. We just
interpreted it suitably to give credits to the owner. But for comparison and contrast, paradigm
and shift were definitely from our word of mouth guided by searched information.
Eientein’sTheory
Hubble’s Theory