The International journal of analytical and experimental modal analysis ISSN NO: 0886-9367

The Environmental Implications of Coal Usage as

an Energy Resource for Residential Heating in
Kabul City
Mohammad Azim Rasuli*1, Shuichi Torii2
*1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan,
2
Department of Mechanical System Engineering, Kumamoto University, Japan,
*1
Phone Number: +81 80 7989-7161, Email: rasuli.azim@gmail.com
2
Phone Number: +81 96-342-3756, Email: torii@kumamoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract— Most of the energy supplied for buildings is used by air conditioning systems, especially heating systems in winter and in
regions with cold weather. Kabul city, the capital of Afghanistan, is also one of the cities that has cold winters and hot summers. And
due to low income and poverty, mostly non-refined materials are used as energy resources for residential heating purposes, such as;
wood, sawdust, coal, rubbish material, and animal dung. Currently, most rural and urban households are using inefficient solid
combustion appliances for the needs of cooking and heating. Combustion of such materials negatively affects indoor and outdoor air
quality and causes air pollution and diseases. This paper complies with the negative implications of coal consumption as an energy
resource for heating purposes. The results show that coal production, transportation, and combustion cause emissions of several types
of harmful gases into the air, and air pollution exposure directly affects human health (i.e. premature deaths from respiratory
diseases, heart diseases, stroke, lung cancer, disability, increase in hospitalization), and the environment (i.e. greenhouse gas
emissions, particulate matters emissions, other harmful substances emission, negative effects on natural habitats). All these negative
consequences are counted as serious threats to human life and nature.

Keywords— Coal, Environment, Air Pollution, Particulate Matters, Emissions

I. INTRODUCTION
Currently, the whole world is paying attention to having a healthy and pollution-free environment. But still, different obstacles
which exist when trying to achieve that goal. Most the power plants, vehicles, heating, and cooling systems use conventional
energy resources like fuel, natural gases, coal, wood, etc. This causes air pollution and has negative environmental impacts. The
Paris agreement in 2015 regarding sustainable development goals for 2030 was a new revisal for environmental assessment of
the anthropogenic tasks, and it has given new opportunities for developing countries to conduct more research on poverty
reduction and to act on preventing environmental pollution causes [1]. Most developing countries are suffering from
environmental pollution due to non-environmentally friendly energy resource usage for daily purposes. Afghanistan is also one
of the countries seriously affected by environmental pollution due to the non-refined energy sources consumption for heating,
cooking, and other purposes. Many factors in Afghanistan pollute the environment, factors such as the use of obsolete and worn-
out vehicles and equipment, lack of 24-hour access to electricity, use of unrefined raw materials for heating, cooling, and cooking,
a lack of complete knowledge about how to maintain the environment, and unreasonable municipality waste management, etc.
The mentioned factors pollute the air to un-breathable extents.
Among the energy consumers, heating is one of the highest energy consumption sectors in the world; it consumes about 30% to
40% of the energy supplied for a residential building [2] and emits more than 30% of CO2 into the air [3]. According to a report
by the National Institute of Building Science (USA) “35% carbon dioxide, 49% Sulphur dioxide, and 25% nitrogen oxide are
generated by the buildings which cause air pollution and global warming” [4]. As fossil fuels are burned in inefficient stoves,
several hazardous substances are released into the atmosphere, which have adverse effects on health and environment [5]. As the
current trend of global warming progresses, inevitable disasters in the forms of drought, flooding, and ill access to clean water
are already visible in the winter season, when the heating of residential space is provided by burning charcoal and non-refined
materials. In the last 12 years from 2007 to 2019, coal consumption has decreased by about 50% in the United States, especially
at power plants that consume coal. It has also dramatically decreased in Western Europe, but in contrast, some estimates show
that currently, a considerable amount of coal is consumed in Asian countries. This will be mostly used for electricity generation,
heating, and cooking [6]. Still in most of Asian and African countries, burning solid fuels i.e. coal, wood, charcoal, dung, and
other forms of biomass counts as an important exposure to particulate matter [7]. In this paper, an assessment is performed
regarding the environmental impacts of coal consumption as a residential building’s heating energy resource. That causes the
emission of different kinds of pollutants, Mercury and other toxic materials that have direct and indirect effects on human health
and the health of other animals, as well as fly ash and bottom ash, which are byproducts of burning coal, Carbon dioxide (CO2),

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which makes up the majority of greenhouse gases produced by burning solid fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO2), which causes acidic rain
falls, nitrogen oxides (NOx), which causes lung diseases, haze, and smog, [8]. Access to a cutting-edge and sustainable energy
infrastructure can lower the usage of solid energy resources. Using cleaner and more advanced modern energies, especially in
suburban regions, is necessary to lessen reliance on solid energy supplies.

II. BACKGROUND
Afghanistan is one of the least developed nation in the world. The political crises and government instability in last three decades
have limited the chances for significant improvements and comfortable living. Having a clean environment free of pollution is
the right of everyone in society, but due to low income, poverty, lack of sufficient access to other energy resources, dependency
on the power, and many more reasons, fossil fuels and rubbish materials are often used for residential heating purposes. The most
important factor is the poverty of the people; they cannot purchase and use high-efficiency equipment and material, especially for
heating purposes. Therefore, fossil fuels and rubbish material are the primary resources for heating purpose. That spreads toxic
gases into the environment, causes air pollution, direct and indirect health effects, and increase greenhouse gas emission [9].
Figure 1 shows the high level of air pollution in the winter season due to the solid fuel used for heating and cooking purposes. In
the winter season, household energy resource usage for heating consists of 40% wood, 40% coal, 10% gas, and 10% electricity
[10]. Due to insufficient elicitation conditions from 1980 to 2004 [12], coal consumption was significantly lower in Afghanistan.
In comparison with the other countries like the USA and Europe, coal usage is set to increase in Afghanistan. Coal consumption
in Afghanistan is about 52.9 cubic feet per capita every year and counts as the 61st highest coal consumer country in the world
[13]. According to the European Commission JRC science for policy report, greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2 emissions
from 1990 to 2021, have increased in all sectors in Afghanistan [14]. Figure 2 shows the amount of fossil CO2 production from
1999 to 2020 for power industry, buildings, transport, and other sectors in Afghanistan. In figure 3, fluctuations of the greenhouse
gases are shown from 1990 to 2020. Total emissions of fossil CO2 and greenhouse gas per GDP, per capita, and population data
for the years 1990, 2005, 2018, and 2020 are shown in table 1. A 321% increase of CO2 emissions in 2020 versus 1990 in all
sectors was reported, a 126% increase of greenhouse gas was recorded in 2018 versus 1990, and also greenhouse gas emissions
in 2018 were estimated 74% higher than in 2005 [14].

Figure 1. The high level of air pollution in Kabul city, Afghanistan’s capital, on December 08, 2019 [11]

Table 1. Total emissions for the years 1990, 2005, 2018, and 2020
Year Mt CO2/yr GHG: Mt CO2eq/yr t CO2/cap/year GHG: t CO2eq/cap/yr t CO2/kUSD/yr
2020 11.948 n/a 0.314 n/a 0.155
2018 8.712 29.306 0.240 0.806 0.115
2005 1.200 16.866 0.048 0.673 0.036
1990 2.835 12.963 0.231 1.058 0.093

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Figure 2. Fossil CO2 emissions by sectors [14]

Figure 3. Greenhouse gas emissions [14]

III. POLLUTANTS
A pollutant is a destructive substance that is not a natural component of the environment. There are many factors that causes air
pollution, the major air pollutants resulting from solid fuel combustion are: SO2, SO3, the oxides of sulfur, carbon monoxide,
CO2, the oxides of nitrogen, NO, and NO2, and particulate matters that mainly consist of very fine particles of grime and ash.
Unburned hydrocarbons are also a source of air pollution, that spread in the air by evaporation before the combustion or without
burning at inefficient solid fuel energy conversion devices[15]. Combustion of fossil fuel resources cause primary and
secondary pollutants, the direct combustion of fossil fuels results in the production of primary pollutants, which are released
into the environment immediately after combustion, and secondary pollutants are formed by the reaction of the primary
pollutants' emissions in the atmosphere [16].

IV. NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS OF COAL

Coal is made of more than 50 chemical elements, with the extraction, purification, transportation, and consumption of coal
causing significant air pollution and profoundly affecting human health [17]. At each phase of the coal life cycle, from
extraction to ash disposal, there are direct and indirect negative impacts on human health, animal life, water, soil, ecosystems,
plants, and the air [18]. Unfortunately, the combustion efficiency of the local household stoves burning solid fuel in Kabul city
is substantially low; due to inefficient combustion, different kinds of harmful substances are emitted into the air. This negatively
affects indoor and outdoor air quality. A lot of research has been conducted in relation to the negative outcomes of coal on the
environment and health and the results show that excessive and uncontrolled use of coal imposes even more negative effects on
the environment and health. In the below sections, environmental and health burdens of coal usage are explained.

A. Radioactivity Property
Coal produces carcinogenic radiation, that causes lung cancer, cell mutations, asthma, and other types of radiation-related menace.
The concentration of radionuclide activity in fly ash from a coal-fired power plant using high-sulfur and low-sulfur coals is shown

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Table 2. Activity concentrations (mBq/g) of radionuclides in fly ash from a Kentucky coalfired power plant burning high-sulfur and low-sulfur coal [19].
Radionuclide High sulfur Low sulfur
Uranium-238 181 161
Radium-226 189 143
Lead-210 315 178
Radium-228 76 125

in Table 2. As a result, people who work in coal plants or live nearby the plants suffer from radiation-related afflictions and
diseases.

B. Contaminates Water System

After the combustion of coal, the waste product left is called ash. It consists of different toxic metals. (i.e. lead, thallium, barium,
cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel) [20]. Mostly coal mines and coal consumption power plants are located around the
riversides and high hills. Groundwater and surface water in the coal mine rush into the pit as a result of the hydrogeological
circumstances in the mining area. As a result, the groundwater level drops, the surface water system is impaired, and the water
supply is depleted. At the same time, a significant amount of untreated mine water is released immediately and severely polluting
the nearby rivers and lakes [18].

C. Strongly Affects Natural Lodgings

In extraction processes of the coal, plant and animal habitats are destroyed. This situation is exacerbated by the outbreak of fires,
which occur mostly in coal mining, coal consumption, and coal ash remaining from combustion. Severe damage to surrounding
infrastructures occurs. Some susceptible parts soil is also lost in the process. Even if it is rebuilt after the land has been worn out
and the mining process finishes, it may never return to its original condition. Even if this happens, it may take a long time [21].
Another serious influence of coal mining on the land is decreasing the water absorptivity ability of the ground, which can cause
flooding [22].

D. Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Greenhouse gases are collections of multiplexes that transmit the majority of solar radiation's electromagnetic spectrum but very
little heat radiation. The sun's radiation continuously warms the planet, which then cools itself by radiating infrared energy into
space. When greenhouse gas emissions are high, more of the earth's radiation is reflected on its surface rather than escaping into
space, yet solar radiation can still pass through the atmosphere. GHGs contribute to global climate change by retaining energy
within the earth's atmosphere [23]. Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O),
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are examples of greenhouse gases [24]. The primary greenhouse gas released as a byproduct of
the combustion of fossil fuels is carbon dioxide (CO2) (coal, natural gas, petroleum) [25]. Considering the pattern and sources of
GHG emissions, it is certain that emissions of carbon dioxide CO2 make by far the major contribution to the greenhouse effect.
In addition, the burning of fossil fuels for the production and use of energy contributes to 75% of the world's CO2 emissions. This
indicates that the greatest single source of greenhouse gas emissions is the burning of fossil fuels [26].

E. Coal is not a Renewable Energy Resource

Unfortunately, coal is a non-renewable energy resource despite its abundant supply. It takes millions of years to form, this means
that as soon as the last drop is spent, it will no longer exist. If there is no viable backup program, it may inconvenience the trades
and amenities that currently rely on electricity and heating. This may certainly affect the economic returns of the regions concerned
[8]. We never can rely on non-renewable energy sources, as they are not available as a long-term option, they will one day run
out. But renewable energy resources are sources of energy that quickly replenish themselves and will never end.

F. Coal Can be Deadly

Around 3.7 million premature deaths from environmental particulate air exposure occurred in 2012, including 482,000 in Europe
and 94,000 in Canada and the United States reported by WHO [27]. Household use of solid fuels for heating is one of the causes
of outdoor air pollution. Some sources of coal mortality include suffocation, asthma, pneumonia, lung cancer, and hypoxia. some
people also experience lack of sleep and fatigue, and such diseases caused gradual and premature deaths in society. Therefore, its
benefits may be offset by the unfavorable side effects that usually result from constant use and being dependent on it as an energy
resource [28]. According to estimates, burning solid fuels like coal for cooking and heating results in around 1 million pneumonia
fatalities in children under 5 and 1 million cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease per year. [29]. Currently, about 73.9%
of Kabul city households are aware of their health and indoor-outdoor environment due to coal and wood usage for heating
purposes [30]. According to the State of Global Air project by the Health Effects Institute, Afghanistan has one of the highest

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per-capita rates of air pollution-related deaths worldwide [31]. Figure 4 shows the average number of deaths in Afghanistan from
1990 to 2019 that can be attributed to air pollution [32].

60000

Number of Deaths Attributable

50000
40000
to Air Pollution
30000
20000
10000
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year

Figure 4. Number of deaths attributable to air pollution in Afghanistan from 1990 to 2019 [32].

G. Coal Causes the Emission of Harmful Substances

Due to the high temperature of ignition and combustion of the coal, the contents of sulfur and nitrogen are higher in the coal than
in other biomass fuels. It means that residential coal combustion is one of the sources of SO2 and oxides of nitrogen produced in
the air[33]. There are certain geographical regions where coal mines exist, and those regions contain toxic elements such as arsenic,
selenium, mercury, lead, and fluorine. Power plant coal combustion accounts for about 26% of global mercury emissions [34].
While burning any type of coal for heating, cooking, and electricity generation purposes, different types of toxic mixtures are
released into the air, such substances are not good for the humans and environment. As a result, the sunshine will be blocked, air
quality will be compromised, and impose cancer and many other diseases on anyone who stays nearby the combustion range [35].

H. Particulate Matters (PM 2.5, PM10) Emissions

PM2.5 is the pollutant that poses the greatest threat to human health. ambient particulate matter comes from industrial emissions,
coal combustion, vehicle emissions, and many other human and natural sources. Soot, smoke, and dust all contain microscopic
particles, measuring less than 2.5 microns in diameter. Due to its potential to lodge in the lungs, it causes long-term health issues
including asthma and chronic lung disorders, PM2.5 is extremely hazardous [36]. Coal consumption is also one of the significant
sources of production of PM2.5 and PM10 in the air. According to the World Health Program report, the recommended limit for
PM2.5 and PM10 are respectively 25 µg/m3 and 50 µg/m3. (concentration measured in 24 hours), In December 2019, the amount
of PM2.5 for 24 hours was measured at 92.2 µg/m3, and PM10 was measured at 120.6 µg/m3 for 24 hours in Kabul city [30].
PM2.5 starts to become a major health problem when there are more than 35.5 micrograms (µg) of PM 2.5 per cubic meter of air.
Households space heating with solid fuels (wood, coal, planet debris, and sawdust) pollutes the outside air, which in turn carries
a significant burden on public health (both in terms of premature deaths and lost years of healthy living). It occurs in many parts
of the world. Europe is among the regions with the most serious challenges in this regard: the ratio of outdoor PM2.5 due to space
heating with wood and coal was high, especially in many parts of Europe, table 3 shows the contribution to outdoor PM2.5 and
the burden of diseases for selected regions.

Table 3. Residential heating contribution to outdoor PM2.5 and burden of disease, selected regions, 1990 and 2010[33]

PM2.5 from PM2.5 from Disability-adjusted

Premature
residential heating residential heating life-years
Region deaths/year
(%) (µg/m3) (DALYs)/year
1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010
Central Europe 11.1 21.1 3.5 3.4 18,000 20,000 370,000 340,000
Eastern Europe 9.6 13.1 2.0 1.4 24,000 21,000 480,000 410,000
Western Europe 5.4 11.8 1.3 1.7 17,000 20,000 280,000 290,000
High-income 4.6 8.3 0.9 1.1 7,500 9,200 140,000 160,000
North America
Central Asia 9.9 8.3 2.4 1.6 5,500 4,200 180,000 110,000
Global 3.0 3.1 0.9 0.7 120,000 110,000 2,800,000 2,200,000

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Figure 5 shows the global annual concentration of particulate matter at 2.5, according to the WHO's standards and
recommendations, the green areas are considered within the level of health, and other colors show poor and unhealthy air. Due to
the combustion of non-refined and non-renewable energy, Afghanistan is also a country that is suffering from high concentration
levels of PM2.5 and PM10, especially in Kabul city, with a high number of unplanned houses and a large population. The amount
of PM2.5 varies depending on the location in each part of Afghanistan from 16-69 µg/m3 [37].

Figure 5. Global map of modeled annual medium concentration of PM2.5 in µg/m3 [37]

V. CONCLUSION
The amount of radiation generated by coal combustion during winter for heating purposes causes the spread of various diseases
and air pollution. As a result, premature deaths, disabilities and global warming occur. Due to poverty, and low level of
household’s awareness about the environmental burdens of coal consumption, coal is one of the most widely used energy
resources for heating and cooking purposes in Kabul city. The most important factor to be considered for having a clean
environment free of pollution is reducing the usage of fossil fuel energy resources, especially coal, because several principal
emissions result from coal combustion. Investigations on the coal usage implications show that, coal should not be counted as
crucial energy resource to be reliant on it. However, coal is one of the abundant solid energy resources in the world and should
not be ignored. Instead, the use of other energy sources should be promoted, and at the same time, consciously measures are
required to reduce its negative consequences on health and the environment. Another fundamental responsibility which falls on
the government is improving access to electricity, informing people about the environment and health benefits of clean energy.

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