ENVIRONMENTAL AND OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES

DURING DRILLING

CHAPTER ONE

1.0: INTRODUCTION.
1.1: General Introduction

Energy is the life blood of our planet earth, an essential commodity that powers the expanding
global economy. Starting in the 1950s, oil and natural gas became the main source of primary
energy for the increasing population, and this dominance is expected to continue for several more
spetroleum production started in 1859 when Drake’s well was drilled near Titsusville,
Pennsylvania. Today oil and natural gas currently supply approximately 63% of the energy
consumption

Drilling started as the simple process of digging a hole. Oil and gas hydrocarbons formed from
organisms in the geologic past. Natural geological processes created favorable conditions for
migration and accumulation in underground reservoir traps. Areas where these traps occur are
located by various methods of exploration. The right to drill wells and produce oil and gas is
obtained from the landowner. Then a drilling program containing information about the prospect
and instructions on drilling the well is prepared. The site is prepared and the rig is moved to the
drill site and assembled. A large diameter hole is drilled by rotating a joint of drill pipe with a bit
fitted on the bottom end. Fluid is circulated down the inside of the pipe and up the outside to
remove the pieces of earth drilled by the bit. Additional joints of drill pipe are connected to drill
the hole deeper. Large pipe or casing is placed in the hole with cement around the pipe. A slightly
smaller hole is drilled deeper through the casing. Slightly smaller casing is placed in this hole and
cemented. Casing a blowout the sequence is repeated using successively smaller sizes until the
last, smallest casing is run through the oil trap thousands of feet below the surface.

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However, to reach the target zone is not a day job. Many drilling problems occur such as loose
pieces of formation falling in the hole and sticking the drill tools. A particularly dangerous
problem occurs when the hole is drilled into high pressure formations. Fluids from the reservoir
can flow up the wellbore and blow hundreds of feet into the air. These types of problems must be
handled to drill the well successfully. Tests provide information about the oil and gas in the
formations and are taken during and after drilling. Many holes are drilled that may not encounter
oil and gas. These dry holes are plugged with cement an abandoned. Wells with good oil and gas
potential are completed. With all necessary equipments in tacked, the drilling engineer must have
understanding and apply vital knowledge in the various types of formations underneath, drilling rig
and its associated tools. My piece of work aims at investigating the environmental and
operational challenges encountered during this process.

1.2: Statement of the problem.

Drilling is the main process through which the reservoir can be reach and there after crude oil production
can commence. This process encounters several challenges which is the purpose of this work.

1.3: Research Questions.

- Does oil field challenges having a great impact to the petroleum field and also to the
environment?
- Is drilling Mud a safety measure during drilling operations?
- Has the presence of a Blow out Preventer (BOP) influence drilling challenges in our
environment?
- Do the different types of sub-surface formation contribute to drilling challenges in the
petroleum field?

1.4: Hypothesis.

- Our environment does not face any challenges during drilling operations.
- Drilling operations do not encountered any challenges and problems.
- Mud may represent 5% to 15% of the total cost but may cause 100% of the problem.
- There exist different types of formations that could lead to drilling challenges during
drilling operations.
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1.5: Objective of Study.

- To introduced some environmental and operational challenges encountered during

drilling.
- To introduce a good perspective and engineering background practice.

1.6: Aim of Study.

- The main aim of this course is to bring forth the environmental and operational
challenges during drilling and to come out with possible preventive measures to
improve drilling efficiency.
- It is also to enable tie the engineering concept, theories, processes and features from
theoretical studies with that prevailing in the field, thereby judging the extent to which
engineering is real.

1.7: Relevance of Study.

- This course will help the environmentalist to advice management on how to

control drilling operation so to avoid environmental impact.
- It will also help engineers to be conscious of drilling challenges and to developed
new technological strategy to solve these challenges for drilling optimization and
boasting up the exploratory sector in the petroleum field.

1.8: Delimitation of Study.

The subject in question, environmental and operational challenges encountered during

drilling could take hundreds of thousands of pages. However, in this work I have limited
environmental challenges during drilling operations to Atmospheric, Aquatic and
Terrestrial domains. Operational challenges during drilling have been limited to some of
the major problems encountered during drilling like loss circulation, stuck pipe, hole
cleaning, formation damage, kick and blowout. The significance of Safety during Drilling
is also elaborated. The importance of this work is also well expantiated. Then a summary,
Conclusion and recommendation.
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1.9: Limitation of Study.

There was no opportunity to visit company for data collection for this report.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW.
Drilling started as the simple process of digging a hole. Oil and gas hydrocarbons formed from
organisms in the geologic past. It is almost certain that environmental and operational problems
will arise while drilling a well, even in very carefully planned wells. For example, in areas in
which similar drilling practices are used, hole problems may have been reported where no such
problems existed previously because formations are non homogeneous. Therefore, two wells near
each other may have totally different geological conditions. Details of the environmental and
operational problems (challenges) are reviewed below.

2.1.0: Review of Environmental Challenges during Drilling (Aquatic,

Atmospheric and Terrestrial).

The drilling rigs are normally high power equipment such as mud pump, diesel engines and so
forth which could cause noise above 100dB. Other sources of noise come from bulldozers,
vehicular traffic and blasting The highest noise levels would occur from drilling and flaring of
gas, Drilling noise would occur continuously for 24 hours per day for one to two months or more
depending on the depth of the formation, thus polluting the environment with noise and making
the inhabitants uncomfortable. (zhou Weiwei, 2012).

Emissions generated during the drilling/development phase include vehicle emissions; diesel
emissions from large construction equipment and generator, storage and dispensing of fuels, and,
if installed at this stage, flare stacks; small amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and
particulates from blasting activities (Kharaka,1975). During oil and gas drilling operations,
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) bearing zones releases H2S to the atmosphere at the shale shaker area and
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later at the circulation fluid. Since hydrogen sulfide is explosive and burns with the production of
a toxic sulfur dioxide (SO2), it is very hazardous to the environment and drilling personnel. In the
drilling phase, the major contaminants are Nitrogen dioxide NO 2, Carbon monoxide CO,
hydrocarbons (CnHm). In the blow down phase, the major contaminants contain SO 2 and H2S.
(Zhou Weiwei, 2012).

The principal aqueous wastes streams resulting from drilling operation are produced water (water
that coexists with oil and gas in the formation and is recovered during well development). Drilling
wastes include hydraulic fluids, pipe dope, used oils and oil filters, rig wash, spilled fuel, drill
cuttings, drums and containers, spent and unused solvents, paint and paint washes, sandblast
media, scrap metal, solid waste, and garbage. Wastes associated with drilling fluids include oil
derivatives (e.g., such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), spilled chemicals, suspended
and dissolved solids, phenols, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel. These wastes
causes an adverse impact to aquatic life’s when discharged in water as depletion of surface waters
from perennial streams could result in a reduction of water flow, which could lead to habitat loss
and/or degradation for aquatic species. (Neff 2002).

2.2.0: Review of Operational Challenges during Drilling.

Pipe sticking.

During drilling operations, a pipe is considered stuck if it cannot be freed and pulled out of the
hole without damaging the pipe and without exceeding the drilling rigs maximum allowed hook
load. . Differential pressure pipe sticking and mechanical pipe sticking are addressed in this
section. (J.J. Azar, 2006). In shallow, unconsolidated sands, tophole collapse might occur. The
hydrostatic pressure must be able to support the formation, but if there is not a good filter cake
and losses occur, there is little difference in pressure between the formation around the wellbore
and mud hydrostatic pressure. The sand simply falls into the well and causes stuck pipe.
Sometimes, formations are fractured. This can happen especially with brittle shales, coal, and
limestone. Mud gets into the fractures, and this lubricates the fracture faces as well as changing

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the pressure regime near the wellbore. Pieces of formation fall off (fracture cavings), (Steve
Devereux, 1997).

Lost Circulation.

Lost circulation is the reduced or total absence of fluid flow up the annulus when fluid is pumped
through the drill string. It's a common and serious problem of borehole while drilling. It always
decrease subsurface pressure in borehole and cause borehole wall sloughing or blow out. Lost
circulation happen when drilling mud liquid column pressure higher than formation fracture
pressure. (Duo Wu 2012). Formations that are inherently fractured, cavernous, or have high
permeability are potential zones of lost circulation. In addition, under certain improper drilling
conditions, induced fractures can become potential zones of lost circulation. The major causes of
induced fractures are excessive downhole pressures setting intermediate casing, especially in the
transition zone too high(J.J.Azar,1975). lost circulation occurs in varying degrees. Losses up to 30
barrels an hour (bbl/hr) would be called seepage losses. This condition is usually caused by drilling
through very permeable formations where the mud cannot form an effective fi lter cake.Between 30
and 60 bbl/hr of mud lost per hour would be called moderate losses. Again, this is likely to be
caused by high-permeability formations and an ineffective fi lter cake. It could also be caused by
faults
that do not seal but allow mud to enter into the fault system.(Devereux 1999).
Fish.
Junks are metal debris lost in a hole. Junk may be a lost bit, pieces of a bit, pieces of pipe,
wrenches, or any relatively small object that impedes drilling or completion and must be fished
out of the hole. Some of those objects fall to the bottom and block drilling; some of them fall to
the position upon the bit or centralizer and became the chief criminal of sticking; some of them
fall to the middle of the borehole and block the drilling path.(Duo Wu. 2012).

Producing Formation Damage.

Formation damage can be defined as any impairement of well productivity or injectivity due to
plugging within the wellbore, or in fractures communicating with the wellbore. Formation
damage is caused by the invasion of foreign fluids and/or solids into the exposed section adjacent

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to the wellbore which reduces the permeability causes pore plugging around the vicinity of the
wellbore. The illustration below shows invasion of foreign fluids into the formation.

Fig. 1: Formation damage due to foreign fluids invasion into the reservoir.

Kick and Blowout.

Technically, a kick occurs when formation fluids flow into the borehole. However, in practices
there are cases where the formation fluid can flow into the wellbore without creating a serious
condition such as gas seeps and minor water flows. These conditions indicate a near balanced or
possibly under-balanced condition and often occur in low permeability formations. The flow of
fluid into the well bore usually is restricted by the low permeability and the low pressure
differential into the well bore (Bennion et al.,1998). Therefore, a more practical definition of a
kick is a condition where formations fluids flow into the well bore at rates detectable at the
surface and create a looming blowout condition.

Blowouts seldom occur but when it occurs, that is because of improper prevention or may be the
equipment and operating procedures are not adequate to control the pressure and volume of the
formation fluids. There can be many reasons for a blowout but unfortunately most of these are
probably caused by a lack of planning and preparation. (Saleem Quadir T, 2011).

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0: METHODOLOGY.
3.1.0: Environmental Challenges (Problems) During Drilling
Operations.
In upstream petroleum industry, drilling is the major operation that can potentially impact the
environment. These challenges depend upon the stages of the process, the size and complexity of
the project, the nature and sensitivity of the surrounding environment and the effectiveness of
planning, pollution prevention, mitigation and control techniques. Waste generated during drilling
falls into four categories:

 Residual drilling fluids and cuttings which constitute the largest volume of waste
produced during drilling operations.
 Different types of wastewater produced during the drilling process.
 Air emissions generated from the drilling equipment and support vessels and aircraft.
 Industrial or solid waste including paint, spent solvents and packing materials.

Therefore drilling operations offer challenges and impact to the environment in the Aquatic,
Atmospheric Terrestrial domains.

3.1.1.0: Aquatic challenges.

The principal aqueous waste streams resulting from drilling operations are:

● drilling fluids, cuttings and well treatment chemicals; and

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● sewerage, sanitary and domestic wastes.

3.1.1.1: Drilling fluids and cutting discharge.

Major environmental impact caused by oil and gas well drilling operations is disposal of drilled
cuttings to the sea. The drilled cuttings are transported by the drilling fluids from a wellbore to a
drilling unit, where the drilled cuttings are separated from the drilling fluids by vibrating screens
("shale shakers"). Some drilling fluids remain adhered to the drilled cuttings but the majority is
separated by the shale shakers. This fluid from the shale shaker passes through the degasser,
desander and desilter where it separate gas, sand and fine grains respectively from the drilling
fluid. This fluids then returned to the drilling fluid system which is continuously re-circulated,
while the drilled cuttings are disposed to the sea. This process is illustrated in the diagram below .

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Fig 2: Example of schematic rig circulating system for liquid drilling fluids .

Discharges of water based mud (WBM) and cuttings are planned to be consistent with drilling
practices. Water-based drilling fluids have been demonstrated to have only limited effect on the
environment. This WBM is much less toxic and much more biodegradable than Oil – Based
drilling Fluids (OBM). The major components are clay and bentonite which are chemically inert
and non-toxic. Some other components are biodegradable, whilst others are slightly toxic after
dilution. . The effects of heavy metals associated with drilling fluids (Ba, Cd, Zn, Pb) have been
shown to be minimal, because the metals are bound in minerals and hence have limited
bioavailability. The physical effects of water-based muds and cuttings are often temporary in
nature.

Oil-based drilling fluids and oily cuttings, on the other hand, have an increased effect due to
toxicity and redox potential. The oil content of the discharge is probably the main factor
governing these effects. Ocean discharges of water-based mud and cuttings have been shown to
affect benthic organisms through smothering to a distance of 25 metres from the discharge and to
affect species diversity to 100 metres from the discharge. Oil-based muds and cuttings effect
benthic organisms through elevated hydrocarbon levels to up 800 metres from the discharge.
However, work is under way to develop synthetic mud (SBM) to eventually replace oil-based
muds. The high pH and salt content of certain drilling fluids and cuttings poses a potential impact
to fresh-water sources. This is because fresh-water sources are free from salt and have low P H
content thus high PH and salt content will limit the concentration of the dissolve oxygen in fresh-
water sources rendering the lives of aquatic organism in danger.

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s Table 1:Elementary composition of drilling fluid constituents

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 A potential source of heavy metals in drilling fluid is from crude itself. Crude oil naturally
contains widely varying concentrations of various heavy metals. In the selected well a
combination of water based muds (WBMs) and OBMs had used. The metals of greatest concern,
because of their potential toxicity and/or abundance in drilling fluids, include chromium,
cadmium, and nickel (Neff, 2002). Some of these metals are added intentionally to drilling muds
as metal salts or organometallic compounds. Others are present as trace impurities in major mud
ingredients, particularly barite and bentonite.

3.1.2.0: Terrestrial challenges.

Potential impacts to soil arise from three basic sources:

● Physical disturbance as a result of construction;

● Contamination resulting from spillage and leakage or solid waste disposal; and

● Indirect impact arising from opening access and social change.

Potential impacts that may result from poor design and construction include soil erosion
due to soil structure, slope or rainfall. Left undisturbed and vegetated, soils will maintain their
integrity, but, once vegetation is removed and soil is exposed, soil erosion may result. Alterations
to soil conditions may result in widespread secondary impacts such as changes in surface
hydrology and drainage patterns, increased siltation and habitat damage, reducing the capacity of
the environment to support vegetation and wildlife. In addition to causing soil erosion and altered
hydrology, the removal of vegetation may also lead to secondary ecological problems, particularly

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in situations where many of the nutrients in an area is held in vegetation (such as tropical
rainforests);
Land farming and land spreading have also been extensively practiced in the past for the
treatment of oily petroleum wastes, and water-based muds and cuttings. However, there are
potential impacts where toxic concentrations of constituents may contaminate the soil or water
resources, if an exposure pathway is present. In the case of muds and cuttings, the most important
consideration is the Potential for the waste to have a high salt content. Arid regions are more
prone to adverse effects than wetter climes, as are alkaline soils or those with high clay content
compared with acid, highly organic or sandy soils. Soil contamination may arise from spills and
leakage of chemicals and oil, causing possible impact to both flora and fauna.

3.1.2.1 Impact on ecosystem.

 Plant and animal communities may also be directly affected by changes in their
environment through variations in water, air and soil/sediment quality and through disturbance by
noise, extraneous light and changes in vegetation cover. Such changes may directly affect the
ecology: for example, habitat, food and nutrient supplies, breeding areas, migration routes,
vulnerability to predators or changes in herbivore grazing patterns, which may then have a
secondary effect on predators. Soil disturbance and removal of vegetation and secondary effects
such as erosion and siltation may have an impact one ecological integrity, and may lead to
indirect effects by upsetting nutrient balances and microbial activity in the soil. If not properly
controlled, a potential long-term effect is loss of habitat which affects both fauna and flora, and
may induce changes in species composition and primary production cycles.

3.1.3.0: Atmospheric challenges.

The primary sources of atmospheric emissions from oil and gas drilling arise from

● Combustion processes such as diesel engines and gas turbines;

● Airborne particulates from soil disturbance during construction and from vehicle traffic.

The principal emission gases from the above activities include; carbon dioxide CO2, carbon
monoxide CO, and nitrogen oxides NO2.

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Flaring is the open-air burning of natural gas. But however flaring action is rare during drilling
process except when there is a blowout where another well is drilled to intersect the blowout well,
and the blowout gas is flow through the drilled well where it is flare out. Flaring can still occur
when a hydrogen sulphide formation is encountered due to its high toxicity strength. In some
cases sulphur content can lead to odour near the facility. Thus it is flare some meters away from
the rig floor.

In case of a blowout, hydrocarbon gases are been release into the atmosphere which is hazardous
to the environment. Complete combustion of pure methane (CH4) produces only carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O).

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons can lead to the formation of carbon monoxide (CO).
Nitrogen in the air is also oxidized during combustion to form oxides of nitrogen, known
collectively as NXOY. Where X and Y are variables of whole numbers.

CH4 + 3/2 O2 CO + 2H2O

N2 +2O2 N2O4

The CH4 in vented natural gas and the CO2 and nitrous oxide (N20) emitted from flares and
incinerators are greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

When H2S bearing formation is encountered during drilling, it releases a toxic, explosive and
colourless H2S gas into the atmosphere. This gas undergoes combustion in air producing sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and water.

2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O

The production of SO2 in air leads to the production of acid rain which is hazardous to our
environment on both plants and animals. These petroleum-related emissions could affect the repiatory
health, vision and skin of humans and animals NOx and particulate matter can cause Smog. Sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can acidify soils and lakes and affect the growth of crops and
forests. Acid deposition can even cause wire fences to rust. Odours can affect quality of life – for
example, make it difficult for people to sleep.
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Figure 2: below shows the flaring action of natural gas during drilling operation.

Table 2: below provides a summary of potential impact in relation to the environmental

component affected and the source.

Activity Source Potential Componen Comments

impact ts
affected
Exploration and appraisal Vegetation cleared, possible erosion and
drilling(onshore) changes in surface hydrology; emission,
Road Access At/ Aq /T vibration and noise from earth moving
equipments; disturbance of local
population and wildlife.

Site Removal of vegetation and topsoil;

possible erosion and changes in surface
Preparation. Footprint At/ Aq/ T hydrology; drainage and soil
contamination; construction, noise,
vibration and emission from vehicles;
disturbance of local population and
wildlife.

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 Camp and Discharges -Water supply requirements; noise,
vibration and emission from plant
Operations. Emissions At/ Aq/ T equipment;-Liquid discharges; muds and
cutting; wash water; drainage; soil
Waste
contamination.-Mud pit; spillage; leakages;
solid waste disposal; sanitary waste
disposal sewage, additional noise and light
from burnt/flare.

Discharges to ocean- Muds, cuttings wash

Exploration and
Appraisal drilling(offshore)
water, drainage, sewage sanitary and
Discharges kitchen waste, spillages and leakages.-
Emission from plant equipments; noise and
Operations Emissions At/ Aq/ T
light; Solid waste disposal onshore and
Wastes impact on local Infrastructure.-Disturbance
to benthic and pelagic organisms, marine
birds.-Changes in sediment, water and air
quality. Loss of access and disturbance to
other marine resources users.-Effect of
vessels and Helicopter movement on
human and wildlife.

At =Atmospheric, Aq = Aquatic and T =Terrestrial.

3.2.0: Drilling Operation Challenges (Problems).

Drilling is one of the important operation in the upstream sector, for without drilling we can’t
reach the reservoir for production to take place. But before reaching this target zone (the
reservoir), there are so many challenges and difficulties involved due to the heterogeneity of the
sub surface formation, variability in temperature and pressure of the sub surface formation and
equipment malfunctioning. Drilling of oil wells is an expensive offshore operation, costing
typically 200 000 US$ per day. Any loss of time caused by unwanted events is costly. They are
so many operational challenges involved during drilling, some of which include loss circulation;
Hole cleaning; stuck pipe; fish; Formation damage; Kick and Blowout.

3.2.1.0: Loss Circulation.

Lost circulation is defined as the uncontrolled flow of whole mud into a formation, sometimes
referred to as thief zone. Lost circulation refers to the loss of drilling fluid or cement slurry,
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partially or completely, to highly permeable zones, cavernous and naturally or induced fractured
formations as shown in the diagram below.

Figure 3: Lost circulation (Schlumberger, 2011).

Usually, the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure is maintained at slightly higher than the formation
pressure so as to prevent formation fluids from entering the well bore. That is also a key item in
well control for avoiding blow-outs. Induced fractures occur whenever the drilling fluid
hydrostatic pressure and pump pressure is much greater than the fracture gradient of the
formation, as shown in Figure 3 (Cook et al., 2012). The green arrows in the Figure show the path
taken by the drilling fluid back to the surface during normal drilling. The white arrows, on /the
other hand, show the path taken by the drilling fluid into the “thief zones” where fractures have
been induced. If immediate remedial action is not taken to cure the loss such as sealing the zones
with some loss circulation materials (LCMs) such as fibrous, flakes and granular mixed with
drilling fluids, then larger and longer fractures will be created. This is because the pressure
needed to propagate a fracture is usually less than that needed to initiate it. It should be noted that
losses are caused by both original and induced porosities.

3.2.1.1: Varying degrees of lost circulation.

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Losses up to 30 barrels an hour (bbl/hr) would be called seepage losses. This condition is usually
caused by drilling through very permeable formations where the mud cannot form an effective
filter cake.

Between 30 and 60 bbl/hr of mud lost per hour would be called moderate losses. Again, this is
likely to be caused by high-permeability formations and an ineffective filter cake. It could also be
caused by faults that do not seal but allow mud to enter into the fault system.

Downhole mud losses of more than 60 bbl/hr are categorized as serious losses. This level of
losses is unlikely to be caused by high permeability formations. Potential causes include
nonsealing faults or fracture systems. If the mud losses are so severe that no returns at all are seen
at the surface, the term total losses would be used to describe the situation. Potential causes
include nonsealing faults or fracture systems, and drilling into formations that contain large
caverns (also called vugs). In partial lost circulation, mud continues to flow to surface with some
loss to the formation. Total lost circulation, however, occurs when all the mud flows into a
formation with no return to surface. If drilling continues during total lost circulation, it is referred
to as blind drilling.

Fig. 4: Lost-circulation zones.

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 Losses occur because both of the following conditions are present:

▪ The drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure is higher than the problem formation pore pressure.

▪ There is a path that allows the mud to flow into the formation and away from the wellbore.

The complete prevention of lost circulation is impossible, because some formations, such as
inherently fractured, cavernous, or high-permeability zones, are not avoidable if the target zone is
to be reached. However, limiting circulation loss is possible if certain precautions are taken,
especially those related to induced fractures. These precautions include:

 Maintaining proper mud weight

 Minimizing annular-friction pressure losses during drilling and tripping in
 Adequate hole cleaning
 Avoiding restrictions in the annular space
 Setting casing to protect upper weaker formations within a transition zone
 Updating formation pore pressure and fracture gradients for better accuracy with log and
drilling data

3.2.2.0: Hole Cleaning.

During drilling all material drilled out need to be removed, i.e. transported to the surface, a
process which is referred to as hole cleaning. Often some of the material remains in the well, and
hole cleaning is still among the most important problems to deal with during drilling. It is also
one of the most studied phenomena within the petroleum industry. Insufficient hole cleaning can
in extreme cases lead to loss of the well or a part of it, i.e. stop of the drilling process and
blocking of the hole.

Throughout the last decade, many studies have been conducted to gain understanding on hole
cleaning in directional-well drilling. Laboratory work has demonstrated that drilling at an
inclination angle greater than approximately 30° from vertical poses problems in cuttings removal
that are not encountered in vertical wells. The illustration below shows that the formation of a
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moving or stationary cuttings bed becomes an apparent problem if the flow rate for a given mud
rheology is below a certain critical value.

Fig. 5: Cuttings-bed buildup in directional wells.

Preventive measures here include:

1. Control the drill rate to ensure the hole is cleaned

2. Circulate bottoms-up until shakers are clean

3. Always check the volume of cuttings coming over the shaker

4. Maintain the correct drilling fluid properties

5. Control the annular velocities

3.2.3.0: Pipe Sticking.

The drillstring can be said to be stuck when it cannot be pulled all the way out of the hole without
exceeding the maximum allowable pull on the pipe. Stuck drill pipes comprise one of the major
drilling problems encountered at Menengai geothermal field in Kenya. This problem has also
been experienced in almost all other drilling (oil and gas or geothermal) fields in the world. When
the drill string gets stuck, drilling fluid is not usually received at the surface, although sometimes

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it can be.(Makuk, 2013). Drill pipe sticking is not only a waste of time and cost, but also may
result in the loss of part of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) or drill string. When that happens, a
decision may have to be made to place a cement plug in the well and sidetrack the well to bypass
the “fish”, causing time delays and additional cost.

3.2.3.1: Sticking Mechanisms For Stuck Pipe.

Drill string sticking is classified into three types, based on the overriding mechanism. These types
are: geometry related, solids related and differential sticking (Devereux, 1998).

A). Geometry-related sticking.

The hole and BHA relative geometry have an impact on the ability of the drill string to get stuck.
Either an inclination or diameter of the hole relative to the BHA will restrict the drill string in its
course. It has been found that the greater the hole inclination, the more the chances of the drill
string getting mechanically stuck. The wells described in this report at Menengai are, however, all
drilled vertically.

i. Under- gauge hole.

Due to prolonged drilling through hard formations, the bit gets worn out and, as a result, its
diameter is reduced, referred to as a loss of gauge. This implies that the hole’s diameter may not
be uniform for the entire hole section. This creates a tapered or tight hole which can cause
mechanical sticking due to the hole geometry when running in with a new bit. Preventive
measures here include;

1. Properly gauge the bit and stabilizers after each run

2. Ream back to bottom if an undergauge hole is suspected

3. Never force a new bit to bottom

ii. Key Seat.

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 As the drill string continuously rotates and rubs against one point on the wall of the hole, it
finally results in the creation of a groove (key seat). This happens when the lateral force of the
rotating string is higher than the formation strength at the point (or length) of contact. It is also
possible for a key seat to be grooved into a casing (a metal) as opposed to a rock. This condition
is created either in doglegs or in undetected ledges near washouts. The lateral force that tends to
push the pipe against the wall, which causes mechanical erosion and thus creates a key seat.

Fig. 6: Pipe sticking caused by key seat.

Fl = Tsinθdl --------------------------------------------------- (1)

where Fl is the lateral force, T is the tension in the drillstring just above the key-seat area, and ϴdl
is the abrupt change in hole angle (commonly referred to as dogleg angle). As the driller pulls out
of hole, a certain section of a drill string cannot get past the key seat, depending on the outside
diameter. Preventive measures here include:

1. Minimize pipe rotation

2. Use wiper trips often
3. Minimize dogleg severity
4. Carefully design the BHA

B). Solids-related sticking (Mechanical Pipe Sticking).

sections squeezing (The causes of mechanical pipe sticking are inadequate removal of drilled
cuttings from the creeping); and key annulus; borehole instabilities, such as hole caving,
sloughing, or collapse; plastic shale or salt seating.
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 I. Mobile Formation.

The mud hydrostatic pressure is meant to support the borehole wall. When this pressure is not
sufficient, then the borehole wall can collapse due to overlying overburden pressure acting on the
formation as shown in figure 7 (Pašićet al., 2007). The collapsed formation will eventually result
in sticking.

Figure 7: Mobile formation (Pašić et al., 2007)

Preventive measures here include:

1. Recognize there is a reaction time associated with these formations

2. Condition the mud prior to drilling those formations

3. Use “eccentric” PDC bits to drill these formations

4. Increase the mud density if possible

6. Minimize open hole time

II. Unconsolidated Formation

As a result of poor bonding between the rock particles, the formation becomes unconsolidated and
poorly packed. This is common for sands, gravel and small river bed boulder formations at
shallow depths of about 500 m (Bowes and Procter, 1997). Poor bonding makes the strength of
the rocks weak and the rocks caneasily yield due to overburden pressures. Any attempt to remove
the previously supporting rock while drilling will cause the nearby rocks to fall into the well bore
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as shown in Figure 4. This eventually causes sticking of the drill string. Mud cake helps to
prevent the poorly bonded rocks from collapsing into the well bore. Absence of, or too thin a Mud
cake will aggravate the collapse.

Figure 8: Unconsolidated formation (Bowes et Procter, 1997)

Preventive measures here include:

1. Control the drill rate

2. Use all solids removal equipment

3. Be prepared for shale shaker screen binding

4. Use viscous sweeps before drilling

C). Differentially stuck pipe. (Differential-Pressure Pipe Sticking).

Differentially stuck pipe is far less common today than 15 or 20 years ago. Differential-pressure
pipe sticking occurs when a portion of the drillstring becomes embedded in a mudcake (an
impermeable film of fine solids) that forms on the wall of a permeable formation during drilling.
For differential sticking to occur, there has to be ‘differential pressure’. This is a phrase that is
sometimes referred to in other literature as overbalance. Differential pressure is the amount of

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mud hydrostatic pressure less that of the formation pressure. A significant amount of differential
pressure forces the drill string (either drill pipe or drill collars) against the well bore wall, due to
the pressure gradient. The diagram belows shows the process of differential sticking.

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Figure 9: The process of differential sticking (Matanovic, 2011)

Mathematically, differential sticking is given by:

ΔP =Pm - Pf ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Where ΔP = The differential pressure;

Pm = The mud pressure; and

Pf = The formation pressure.

When the pipe is stuck, then a pull out force is required to free it. This is mathematically given by
the following equation:

F =ΔP Ac µ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

Where F = Pull out force (N);

Δp = Differential pressure (Pa);

Ac = Contact area between the pipe and the mud cake; and

µ = Coefficient of friction between the pipe and the mud cake.

The contact area depends on the arc length and length (depth) of the pipe in contact with the mud
cake.

The contact area is given by:

Ac =Ψ arc Lep-------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Where Ψ arc = Arc length; and Lep =Embedded pipe length.

The arc length is given by:

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Ψ arc =2 √ ¿ ¿---------------------- (5)

Where 2tmc ≤ Dop ≤ (Dh - tmc).

Dh, tmc and Dop represent the hole diameter, mud cake thickness and pipe outside diameter,
respectively.There are four conditions related to differential sticking, all of which must be present
for it to occur. These are as follows:

▪ The presence of a permeable zone covered with wall cake

▪ Static overbalance on the formation

▪ Contact between the wall and drillstring

▪A stationary string.

Preventive Measures here include:

1. Always begin pipe motion in a downward direction

2. Ensure a pit is available for pumping pills

3. Use grooved or spiral drill collars

4. Minimize the length of unstabilized drill collars

5. Minimize the length of the BHA

4.6.0: Fish.

Sometimes, something gets into the hole that needs to be recovered. For instance, a
spanner might drop down the rotary table or part of the drillstring might break. These
items prevent normal operations from continuing. The item that must be removed from the
well is called a fish, and activity to remove the fish is termed fishing. The Illustrate below
show the occurrence of a fish in the wellbore and how it is removed (fishing).

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 DRILL PIPE DRILL PIPE

TOOL JOINT TOOL JOINT

ROTARY BOX ROTARY BOX
CONNECTION CONNECTION

DRILL COLLAR DRILL COLLAR

FISHING
BIT SUB BIT SUB

FISH
BIT BIT

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 Fig 10: A Fish. Fig 11: Fishing.

There are four main causes for fish in the hole:

1. If there is a failure somewhere in the pipe in the hole that causes a break, the lower part of the
string will drop into the hole.

2. If stuck pipe cannot be freed, it has to be cut or unscrewed downhole.

3. Something falls into the well.

4. Sometimes wells are worked over; they may require that the existing completion is replaced
with another completion. Often the completion tubing has to be cut downhole and recovered in
pieces.

Preventive measures here include:

1. Ensure downhole tools are in good condition

2. Inspect downhole tools regularly

3. Be careful when working around the rotary table

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4. Leave the hole covered when the drillstring is out of the borehole

3.2.4.0: Formation Damage.

Formation damage is defined as the impairment to reservoir (reduced production) caused by

wellbore fluids used during drilling/completion and workover operations. It is a zone of reduced
permeability within the vicinity of the wellbore (skin) as a result of foreign-fluid invasion into the
reservoir rock

3.2.4.1: Damage Mechanisms.

particle swelling or dispersion, saturation changes, wettability reversal, emulsion
blockage, aqueous-filtrate blockage, and mutual precipitation of soluble salts in wellbore-
fluid filtrate and formation water.

a) Solids Plugging.

The diagram below shows that the plugging of the reservoir-rock pore spaces can be caused by
the fine solids in the mud filtrate or solids dislodged by the filtrate within the rock matrix. To

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minimize this form of damage, minimize the amount of fine solids in the mud system and fluid
loss.

Fig. 12: Formation damage caused by solids plugging.

b) Saturation Change.

Production is predicated on the amount of saturation within the reservoir rock. When a
mud-system filtrate enters the reservoir, it will cause some change in water saturation and,
therefore, potential reduction in production. High fluid loss causes water saturation to
increase, which results in a decrease of rock relative permeability.This effect is
summarized in the graph below.

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 Figure 13: illustration of formation damage.

c) Wettability Reversal.

Reservoir rocks are water-wet in nature. It has been demonstrated that while drilling with oil-
based mud systems, excess surfactants in the mud filtrate that enter the rock can cause
wettability reversal. It has been reported from field experience and demonstrated in laboratory
tests that as much as 90% in production loss can be caused by this mechanism. Therefore, to
guard against this problem, the amount of excess surfactants used in oil-based mud systems
should be kept at a minimum.

3.2.5.0: Kicks.

A kick is an unscheduled flow of formation fluid(s) into the wellbore. This is due to the fact that,
the pressure inside the wellbore is lower than the formation pore pressure (in a permeable
formation). in practices there are cases where the formation fluid can flow into the wellbore
without creating a serious condition such as gas seeps and minor water flows. Therefore, a more
practical definition of a kick is a condition where formations fluids flow into the well bore at rates
detectable at the surface and create a looming blowout condition

3.2.5.1: Causes of Kicks.

- Density of drilling fluid too low. Don’t send a boy to do a man’s job.
- Failure to keep the hole adequately filled with drilling fluid. Watch it- especially during
trips.
- Reduction of hydrostatic pressure by pipe withdrawal –“Swabbing” the hole.
- Reduction of hydrostatic pressure through loss of drilling fluid to formation –Lost
circulation.

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3.2.5.2: Kick detection.
Some of the preliminary events that may be associated with a well-control problem, not
necessarily in the order of occurrence, are:

1. Pit gain;

2. Increase in flow of mud from the well

3. Drilling break (sudden increase in drilling rate).

4. Decrease in circulating pressure

5. Shows of gas, oil, or salt water

6. Well flows after mud pump has been shut down

7. Increase in hook load

8. Incorrect fill-up on trips

he severity of the kick depends mainly on the following:

- Pressure differential between the formation and the hydrostatic pressure caused by the
mud column
- Formation permeability
- Amount of formation exposed to the well bore
- Rate and the type of fluid flow into the well bore before the well is shut in (i.e., oil, gas, or
water)

This severity is indicated by the Shut-in Drill Pipe pressure (SIDP) and the gain in pit volume.

When a kick is not controlled, it results to a hazardous condition known as Blowout. Therefore
some of the preventive measures include;

- Tripping pipe too fast should be avoided so as not to cause surging or swabbing.

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 - Always fill the hole adequately with drilling fluids to balance the hydrostatic pressure loss
during trip out.
- Avoid using too low or too high mud density.

3.2.6.0: Blowout.
A blowout is an uncontrolled escape of gas oil, or formation fluids that may lead to fire,
explosion, drilling rig destruction, injury, or death.

Blowout may occur when the formation fluid pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the
circulating fluid in the well annulus such as the totally unexpected encountering of unpredictable
pressure and/or when mechanical controlling with preventers (BOP’s) or other pressure control
misuse, misapplication, or malfunction. During a drilling, the mud serves as the first control
method. If there is a pit level increase (or any of several other indications), then the formation
pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the mud. This is called a kick. If a kick occurs, the
driller should take steps to close in the well with the BOP’s. After the BOP’s are closed, the mud
weight is increase so that it can exert a pressure equal to, or slightly higher than, the pressure of
the formation.

Most wells are drilled in oil fields with predictable formation pressure. BOP’s selected to be
compatible with these pressures are installed as soon as the surface casing is in place. BOP’s
function by sealing off the well bore. A series of hydraulic (and some annulus) rams activated
from ground level (not on the derrick) seal and contain the formation pressure.
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If the kick is not noticed in time or the techniques used to control the formation pressure are not
adequate, then a blowout occurs. Since blowouts and subsequent fires involve the loss of
equipment and time (as well as employee exposure to extremely hazardous conditions), the
industry usually takes great care to prevent their occurrences.

Figure 14.August 2004, Offshore platform accident due to a blow-out off the Egyptian coast.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

4.1: Environmental Challenge Results and Discussion.
4.1.1: Drilling fluid and cutting discharge.
Drilling fluids is made up of certain metals which gives it toxicity content , thereby making it
harmful to the environment upon discharged. Metals concentrations in mud pit of selected well
during and after drilling operation are presented in the diagram below.

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Figure 15. Heavy metals fluctuation during and after drilling operation.

The graph above shows the concentration levels of the various toxic metals in drilling fluids.These
metals were detected at different levels; Chromium (Cr) 0-0.008ppm, Cadmium (Cd) 0-0.006ppm,
Nikel (Ni) 0-0.024ppm and Aluminum (Al) 0-341ppm. These heavys level are generally above toxic
levels. Thus, when discharge into unlined pits, the toxic substances in the pit s can leach directly into
the soil and may contaminate groundwater. It tends to accumulate in bottom sediments, from which
they may be release by various process of remobilization. Frequently, these metals can move up the
biological chain, eventually reaching humans which is toxic and could be at risk of problems such as
genetic defects and cancer.

4.1.2: Remedial measures of environmental challenges during drilling.

Aquatic pollution is a big environmental problem as observed under present practice. One of
the best methods to practice is to use synthetic base mud instead of oil base mud during drilling.
The synthetic drilling based mud, could be hugely used because they have limited effect on the
environment. Major components such as clay and bentonite are chemically inert and non-toxic,
some are biodegradable, some slightly toxic after dilution, metals pose no problem as they are

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bound in minerals and oil based drilling mud offers more toxic components and redox potential.
Also discharging drilling fluids to small streams and closed water bodies should require special
attention in which case ensure proper treatment of wastes before they are discharged.

Flaring of gases is a major source of pollution in petroleum exploitation. A best practice

may be to source for market, for the gas, integrate the use of such gas in the development process
of the country e.g. pipe to homes for usage in cooking and heating as well as convert to it

electricity etc. Also planting of many more trees such as mangroves around the surroundings
which will use the CO2 produced from the flaring of gas and to produce oxygen during
photosynthesis so as to reduce global warming.

4.2: Operational Challenge Result And Discussion.

4.2.1: Analysis Of stuck pipe at menengai, Kenya.
When the parameters in Tables 1 and 2 were inserted in the various equations in page 25 and 26,
the resulting stuck pipe pull out force was as shown in the graphs in Figures below (Murrilo et
al., 2009).

TABLE 3: Different friction coefficient and TABLE 4: Different cake thickness

embedded pipe length. On embedded pipe length.

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Fig 16: Effect of friction coefficient on Fig 17: Effect of mud cake thickness

Pulling force (Murrilo et al., 2009) On pulling force (Murrilo et al., 2009).

The graph in fig 16 shows that the pull force is directly proportional to the friction coefficient.
The embedded pipe length( Lep) is directly proportional to the pull force and the higher the
embedded pipe length the higher the pull force and friction coefficient. In fig 17, the pull force is
proportional to the square root of the mud cake thickness. Also the longer the embedded pipe
length the higher the pull force and the reverse is true.

Table 5 shows the average rate of penetration at Menengai wells (MW) used to drill a section of a
well which is also shown graphically in Figure 13a. Table 5 shows the average rate of penetration
in meters per day to drill each section. Table 6 shows the depths where sticking occurred in
different wells and Figure 19 shows the average sticking time per section. Well MW10 was only
drilled to a depth of 740.77 m and then abandoned due to drilling problems.

Table 5: Average rate of penetration per section (m/day).

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Table 6: Sticking depth (m) per section.

Figure 18: Average rate of penetration in Figure 19 : Average sticking time for each

Different hole sections (m/d section of the well (days).

Table 6 shows that most troublesome zone in Menengai is at a depth of 2100 m where the drill
string got stuck in Wells MW03, MW04, MW07 and MW12. Wells MW01 and MW06 had drill
string sticking at a depth of 2206 and 2202.96 m, respectively. An analysis indicated that the
troubles were related to intersecting magma intrusions, shown by fresh glass in the cuttings that
were observed at the shale shakers. The magma pushed the drill string up (large drop in hook
load) and it got stuck, blocking the circulation at the same time.

4.2.2: Detection of Kick from pit gain.

Pit gain is the difference between the volume of fluid pumped into the well and the volume of
fluid pumped out of the well. If the well is stable (that is, there are no gains or losses) the two
should be equal. The easiest way to monitor pit gain is to pump fluids into the well from a single
pit and route returns from the well into the same pit. This is called single-pit monitoring.
However, when dealing with several different fluids (mud, spacer, seawater), the crew must use

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several different pits to prevent the fluids from mixing. In order to monitor multiple pits, the crew
can use the active pit system.

Active Pit System. The active pit system refers to a computer setting that allows the
driller (and others) to select several pits and aggregate their volumes into one “active pit
volume” reading. Even though there are several different pits involved, the rig’s computer
system displays them as a single pit for volume monitoring purposes. There are several ways to
configure the active pit system. In a closed-loop system, the fluids going into the well are taken
from the active pit system, and the fluids coming out of the well are returned to the active pit
system. Because volume-in should equal volume-out, the active pit volume will stay constant
when the well is stable. If the active pit volume increases that strongly indicates that a kick is
under way. A volume increase should be easily detectable by a positive slope in the trend line
(seen in Figure 17) or an uptick in the numerical data.

Figure 20: Active pit volume in a closed-loop system.

In a closed-loop system, active pit volume will remain constant so long as the well is stable. An
increase in active pit volume strongly indicates that a kick is under way.

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4.2.2.1: Pit Gain in a Non-Closed-Loop System.
Monitoring pit gain in a non-closed-loop system is more complex. In a non-closed-loop system,
fluids are either taken from or returned to places other than the pits on the rig. For instance, when
rig crews use seawater to displace mud from a well, the rig may pump the seawater in from the
ocean (and bypass the pits) but still direct mud returns back to the pits.In that case, active pit
volume will increase over time because the returns are filling up the pits (seen in Figure18 ).

Figure 21: Active pit volume in a non-closed-loop system.

In a non-closed-loop system, active pit volume will increase continuously regardless of the well’s
stability.

Chapter five.

5.0: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.

5.1.0: Safety during Drilling Operations.

In my opinion drilling for oil and gas is the most important aspect of successful oil and gas
producing industries. This activity provides row material which moves great number of other
industries and generally the rest of the world. Using leading-edge technologies, our aim is to
prevent hydrocarbons from reaching the surface in an uncontrolled manner during drilling
operations. We use a series of effective methods for preventing potential incidents or controlling
and mitigating their impact. The safety technologies deployed during drilling operations
encompass three key components:

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  drilling mud
 the blow-out preventer
 cementing

5.1.1: Drilling mud

The first line of defence against the uncontrolled exit of oil or gas from a well is drilling mud,
which is injected into the well in a closed circuit. The specific gravity of the drilling mud is
adjusted based on detailed calculations that take into account the pore pressures that may be
encountered in the rock formations to be drilled. The hydrostatic pressure produced in this way
controls the formation pressures and prevents hydrocarbon leakage.
 

5.1.2: Blow-out preventer

Aside from the properly adjusted specific weight of the drilling mud, the so-called blow-out
preventer is the most vital safety device. It is located directly at the wellhead and consists of
several independently operating shutoff valves, each of a different design.The well is shut off by
means of a jaw-shaped slide valve and a ring-shaped cuff. Together they ensure that the drilling
string in the well is enclosed in such a way that the well is completely sealed off in the event of an
emergency. Should a complete shut-off become necessary, the shear jaws can be used to cut off
the drilling string and shut off the well. High-pressure conduits mounted on the blow-out
preventer allow fluids to be circulated in and out of the well even once it is shut off. The shut-off
valves are connected to a hydraulic system through which each valve can be controlled
individually. The blow-out preventer can be operated manually or automatically. If it is located on
the seafloor, it can also be operated by means of a Remote Operated Vessel (ROV) or by remote
control using sound waves. The blow-out preventer is firmly connected to the well casing and is
subjected to regular inspections and a range of function and pressure tests.

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5.1.3: Cementing

A qualified cementing of the casing string also contributes to the safety of the borehole. Cement is
used to stabilise and seal the individual casing sections. The cementing ensures a tear-proof
connection to the surrounding loose rock that is impermeable to gas and fluids. This prevents the
uncontrolled rise of hydrocarbons outside the casings as well as damage or corrosion. For this
reason, cementing is always planned and executed in such a way that a permanent seal suitable for
the prevailing reservoir conditions is created. The proper functioning of the seal is established
using various measurement and monitoring methods.

5.2: Conclusion.

For a safe drilling operation, the following safety issues can be tackled through;
 Ensuring the availability of detailed Geological and Seismic information.
 Intensive training/monitoring by competent personnel
 Continuous study of returned drilling cuttings at the surface to avoid gas cuts to
know how the sudden litho-logical changes.
 To keep smooth penetration rate, proper usage of drilling fluid is very important
parameter to bring the cuttings at the surface.
 To control the formation pressure, ideal BOP’s and drilling fluid must be used.
 Ensure drillstring is monitored and retrieved prior to it failing in the wellbore.
 Drill the Well on Paper (DWP) before arriving at the drilling location.

5.2.0: Recommendation.

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• Significant efforts, and considerable progress, have been made in formulating and handling
drilling fluids to be more environmentally friendly. Because of the need to optimize drilling
techniques, oil base mud cuttings are pile up in drums and burnt in a confined arena onshore after
drilling to minimize the effect on the environment

 To avoid differential sticking, it is better to use spiral drill pipes/drill collars which can be
helpful in easily rotation and POOH (pull out of hole) operation and the design of spirals
should be sharp like a cutting blade.
 While drilling in competent formation, it may be necessary to increase the viscosity of the
drilling fluid/mud to circulate the material out of the hole with high injection/circulating
pressure with a back up of water as driving medium and by this action, the time
consumption is less as compared to the injection/circulation of drilling mud alone.
 Caliper log must be run just to be familiar with the borehole condition (e.g., caving,
sloughing etc.), so that the proper maintenance would be performed in the mean time.
 Proper usage of standardized API tagged casings, drill pipes and drill collars.

5.3: References.

Saleem Qadir Tunio, Abdul Haque Tunio Naveed Ahmed Ghirano and Sonny Irawan

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia (2011). Is It Possible to Ignore

Problems Rising During Vertical Drilling.Research Journal of Applied Sciences,
Engineering and Technology 3(11): 1329-1334, 2011 ISSN: 2040-7467.

Steve Devereux (1957). Drilling technology in nontechnical language.

Halliburton, 2011. Treatment for Lost Circulation; “WellSET™ Lost Circulation Treatment.
Retrieve from:www.halliburton.com/ps/default.aspx?
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 pageid=652&navid=196&prodid=PRN::J21IEBE8Zwww.
halliburton.com/public/cm/contents/Overview/images/flexplug.gif.

Sandra Kloff and Clive Wicks (2004). Environmental management of offshore oil development
and maritime oil transport.

Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor, Ariffin Samsuri and Seyed Reza Shadizadeh.

Overview of Environmental Management by Drill Cutting Re-Injection Through
Hydraulic Fracturing in Upstream Oil and Gas Industry

J. P. (Koos) Visser Chairman, E&P Forum Environmental Quality Committee (1993–6).

Environmental management in oil and gas exploration and production

Robert D. Bott (2007). Flaring: Question + Answer.

Bayu Wedaj Habtemariam Ethiopian Geological Survey Drilling Service Center P.O. Box 2023,
Addis Ababa ETHIOPIA. Main technical issues regarding Problems when drilling geothermal
wells. a preliminary study. PP. 245-256 in Ray, J.P. and Engelhardt, F.R. (eds), produce water:
technological/environmental issues and solutions (being the proceedings of the 1992 international
produced Water Symposium, San Diego, California, 4-7 february 1 Plenum Press New Jersey,
USA.

J.J. Azar, University of Tulsa (2006). - Drilling Problems and Solutions.

Neff, J.M. (2002). Bioaccumulation of Marine Organisms. Effects of Contaminants from oil
well produced water.Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. ISBN: 978-0-08-043716-
3.452 pages

Bleier, R, Leuterman, A.J.J., and Stark, C. (1993). Drilling fluids making peace
with the environment. J. Petrol Tech. 45:6-10.

Pašić, B., Gaurina-Međimurec, N., and Matanović, D., 2007: Wellbore instability: Causes and
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consequences. Rudarsko-Geološko-Naftni Zbornik, 19,87-98.

Isaac Kipkoech Makuk, 2013. reducing geothermal drilling problems to improve performance in
menengai Geothermal Development Company – GDC P.O. Box 17700 Nakuru – 20100 KENYA

Duo Wu, Faiza Khatri and Chukwumaijem M Ejimuda Safety issues during drilling operations.

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