Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envres

Life-cycle assessment approach for municipal solid waste management

system of Delhi city
Ashootosh Mandpe a, e, 1, Ayushman Bhattacharya b, 1, Sonam Paliya c, e, Vinay Pratap c, e,
Athar Hussain d, Sunil Kumar c, e, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, 453 552, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 502285, India
c
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Human Resource Development Centre, (CSIR-HRDC) Campus, Ghaziabad, 201 002, India
d
Netaji Subhas University of Technology West Campus, Jaffarpur, New Delhi, 110 073, India
e
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The life-cycle assessment (LCA) approach with route optimization technique was adopted in the present study to
Global warming potential evaluate environmental and economic aspects associated with the prevalent waste management system in Delhi
Landfills city. With an objective of cost minimization and abating environmental hazards from waste transportation
Life-cycle assessment
systems, ArcGIS was used to identify the most appropriate route for waste transportation. The study was con­
Municipal solid waste
Route optimization
ducted considering four landfills located at Bawana, Bhalswa, Ghazipur and Okhla present in Delhi city. Land­
Sensitivity analysis filling, composting, anaerobic digestion, and recycling methods were analyzed for global warming potential
(GWP), eutrophication potential (EP), acidification potential, abiotic resource depletion potential and photo­
chemical oxidation potential parameters using LCA software GaBiPro. The results from the LCA studies for the
municipal solid waste management system of Delhi city revealed that transportation emissions and landfilling
negatively impact the environment. The effect of recycling rate on the landfilling, composting, anaerobic
digestion was also studied using sensitivity analysis. Results of sensitivity analysis depicted that recycling of
waste is inversely related to the impact categories. Overall, the results exhibited a detrimental effect of landfilling
on the environment in terms of GWP and EP. Further, considering the geospatial analysis, two waste recycling
stations are proposed in the vicinity of existing waste management plants to reduce the time and cost of waste
transport from the landfills to the waste management plants.

1. Introduction
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is used for analyzing the
environmental impacts that occur during municipal solid waste man­
agement (MSWM). LCA allows the comparison of different waste man­
agement techniques to adopt the best-suited and sustainable waste
management technique (Ikhlayel, 2018). MSWM intervenes with
various issues like rapid urbanization, swelling population, lack of
effective technology and improper implications of government policies,
and thus MSWM is still a major issue in developing countries like India
(Mia et al., 2018). The generation rate of municipal solid waste (MSW)
in India is about 1,33,760 tonnes per day (TPD), from which around 91,
152 tonnes is amassed and only 25,884 tonnes is being processed
(Kumar et al., 2017). According to (Kumar et al., 2017), the per capita
MSW generation rate in India ranges between 0.17 and 0.62 kg per day.
The annual growth in per capita solid waste generation rate in India is
1.33% (Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organi­
zation, 2014; Kumar et al., 2017). The main genesis for the increasing
MSW generation is the consumption pattern and changing lifestyle. The
MSW generated in India mostly comprises of paper (5.7%), plastics
(3.9%), textile (3.5%), glass (2.1%), metals (1.9%), leather (0.8%), ash
& fine particles (40.3%) and compostable matter (41.8%) (Nandan et al.,
2017). The distinctive fractions of MSW generated in India are biode­
gradable (55%), recyclables (15%) and inerts (30%) (Central Public
Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (2000),(CPHEEO),
2014).

* Corresponding author. Sr. Principal Scientist & Head, Waste Re-processing Division, CSIR-NEERI, Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440 020, India.
E-mail address: s_kumar@neeri.res.in (S. Kumar).
1
Both the authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113424
Received 23 February 2022; Received in revised form 25 April 2022; Accepted 2 May 2022
Available online 12 May 2022
0013-9351/© 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
A. Mandpe et al.
To adopt efficient waste treatment technology, the characterization
of waste is essential. Waste can be converted into a resource if reused
and recycled properly (Mia et al., 2018). As per the Annual Report
(2016–2017) published by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
on Implementation of Solid Waste Management (SWM) rules, the total
number of functional landfills, waste to energy (WtE) plants, dumpsites
in India were found to be 204, 29, 2120 respectively. The MSWM follows
the hierarchy in order, such as reducing and segregating wastes at the
source itself, recycling, recovery in terms of WtE, and landfilling
(CPHEEO, 2000). Improper waste management strategies raise various
environmental issues such as toxication of groundwater, clogging of
drains, the emanation of air pollutants and dissemination of diseases like
diarrhoea, dysentery, and eczema (Mia et al., 2018). According to
Talyan et al. (2008), there is a paucity of safe disposal options due to
financial constraints and limitation of land; Indian cities discard their
waste in dumping grounds situated at the city’s suburbs, which obstructs
the sustainable waste management practice. Being a cheaper disposal
option, landfilling is the most favourable choice for MSW disposal in
developing countries.
Furthermore, several studies show that solid waste recycling is a
suitable method that not only conserves resources but also saves costs
for amassing and disposal of wastes; however, due to lack of health and
safety guidelines and improper recycling techniques, it is not considered
a tenable option (Schoot Uiterkamp et al., 2011). On the other hand,
composting is the most suitable resource recovery method from organic
solid waste. Its efficiency is high at a small scale, and the emission of
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) is comparatively lower than any other treat­
ment options (Mu et al., 2017). In waste management systems, collec­
tion and transportation of waste for processing utilize more than 40% of
the total allocated budget. The distance travelled by trucks, time for
travel, fuel consumption, and air emissions can be reduced by opti­
mizing the routes for collection and transportation of waste (Vu et al.,
2019).
In urban parts, heterogeneous waste is found to be scattered at
different locations in an unorganized manner, which tends to increase
the cost of waste collection and transportation. Routing vehicles for
collecting waste is a crucial decision as it reduces the collection cost and
congestion of traffic and thereby enhances the collection efficiency of
the MSWM system (Sarmah et al., 2019). Thus, an effective strategy for
collecting and transporting waste can significantly reduce the costs
associated with the collection and transportation of waste.
Recently the application of geographical information systems (GIS)
has been increased due to the maturation of technology and easier
handling of large and complex spatial data. Several authors have
investigated route optimization to improve environmental conditions
and proper siting of landfills, transfer stations, and waste management
plants. The suitability of GIS for these types of studies is due to its
capability of storing data, retrieving, analyzing and applying to a large
amount of data by visualizing the output with response time
(Nguyen-Trong et al., 2017). High costs are involved in waste collection
and transportation since they are collected and transported from the
entire city. Formulation of strategy for waste transportation from source
to the disposal site can provide an optimal solution to the issues related
to waste management and the economic factors associated with waste
transportation (Das and Bhattacharyya, 2015).
Due to the population explosion and urban sprawl, there is a huge
rise in waste generation resulting in problems associated with waste
management and is cited as the biggest problem in Delhi city. The five
local authoritarian bodies accountable for the management of waste in
Delhi are viz., New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC), East Delhi
Municipal Corporation (East DMC), North DMC, South DMC, and Delhi
Cantonment Board (DCB) for implementing the solid waste management
by-laws 2018 for the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). The
main emphasis in by-laws is on waste segregation at the source and
further segregation at the secondary storage points. By adopting the
concept of 3Rs (Reduce, Recycle and Reuse), the segregated waste is
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Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424
further transferred for its intended use or disposal in landfill sites.
Route optimization may prove beneficial in reducing travelling dis­
tances, operational costs, and emissions to the environment. The factors
that impact this study are the amount of waste generated, the location of
the transfer and processing stations, and the locations of landfill sites in
the study area. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that transfer
stations can be proposed at the optimized route, with the transfer of
waste to the respective waste management centre or a landfill site in the
adjoining region. The proposed arrangement will open ways for sug­
gesting new schemes of collection, transfer and transportation of waste.
Few areas may be situated far away from the existing landfill sites; thus,
it may not be feasible to transport all types of waste to the landfills. Since
transportation of these enormous amounts of waste involves higher
costs, separating the organic waste and transferring it to the compost
plants is proposed along the optimized route (Nagarajappa, 2015).
By considering the current scenario of MSWM in Delhi city, the
present study was carried out to evaluate different environmental as­
pects associated with the MSWM and GIS software with a network an­
alyst model for optimizing the route to identify the most suitable path.
Several transfer stations were also proposed on the optimized route,
with waste transfer to the respective waste management centre or a
landfill site in the adjoining region.
2. Methods
2.1. Study region and MSW composition
Delhi is a city and union territory of India, with a population crossing
over 26 million people (Government of Delhi, 2017). Delhi is positioned
at 28.61◦ N 77.23◦ E and lies in the Northern part of the country. Delhi is
located at an elevation of 227 m above mean sea level. It covers an area
of 1484 sq. km. and is enclosed by the states of Uttar Pradesh in the east
and by Haryana on its west. The current MSW generation rate in Delhi is
approximately more than 7000 TPD (Nandan et al., 2017). The local
bodies involved in the waste management activities in Delhi are the New
Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC), Municipal Corporation of Delhi
(MCD), Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB), covering an area of about 1399
sq. m, 42.8 sq. m. and 43 sq. m, respectively (Government of Delhi,
2017). The area covered by MCD for MSWM is far greater than NDMC
and DCB. Currently, 5730 TPD of waste is landfilled, 430 TPD of waste is
composted, and 560 TPD is recycled (Government of Delhi, 2017). At
present, there are three operational sanitary landfills located in Ghazi­
pur (70 Acres), Bhalswa (40 Acres) and Okhla (56 Acres). Two com­
posting plants, namely the Okhla plant and Agricultural Produce
Marketing Committee (APMC) Tikri plant, are also under operation
(Government of Delhi, 2017). The WtE plants in New Delhi were not
operational and were scheduled to operate from August 9th 2018 (DPCC,
2021). The MSW samples collected from Delhi comprised paper (6.6%),
textile (4%), leather (0.6%), plastics (1.5%), metals (2.5%), glass
(1.2%), compostable matter (31.78%), and ash, fines and others (51.5%)
as shown in Fig. 1 (Nandan et al., 2017).
2.1.1. Spatial analysis of the area
In the present study, ArcGIS network analyst was used for network-
based spatial analysis in vehicle routing. The proposed methodology
comprises three phases in; which the first phase consists of connecting
the locations of the landfill sites to the compost plants and recycling
stations, respectively. In the second phase, all the possible trans­
portation routes from the landfill sites to the compost plant and recy­
cling stations were connected and analyzed in a map. In the third phase,
the best routes for waste transportation from landfill sites to the compost
plants and recycling stations were noted by perusing the maps. Later, the
best route between the landfill sites and compost plant and recycling
stations were identified. The data required for preparing a model using
GIS technology was the site location, study area map, the road network
of the concerned area and routes between the locations. Temporal
A. Mandpe et al.
Fig. 1. Composition of MSW in Delhi city.
conditions were not considered in the model, and only the static con­
dition, i.e., fixed traffic, was assumed. It was considered that the waste
was first carried to the landfills after collection and later was taken from
respective landfills to the nearest waste recycling stations and compost
facilities for further processes. The shortest route was considered as the
cheapest route. Thus, using this set of conditions, the routes were opti­
mized and based on the location of the landfill, the suggestion for new
waste recycling stations are presented in Fig. 2.
2.2. Life-cycle assessment
Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is a standardized tool that
systematically evaluates technological, economic, social and environ­
mental aspects from each step of production or management processes
(Oldfield et al., 2018). In the recent past, many researchers have used
LCA methodology for different applications; for example, LCA was used
for comparing waste management of conventional and bio-based
Fig. 2. Routes of different landfill sites to the waste management plants and informal recycling centres near Delhi city.
3
Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424
garbage bags (Saibuatrong et al., 2017); Piippo et al. (2017) used LCA
to compare GHG emissions from different sewage sludge; Lee et al.
(2018) used LCA to compare diverse options for processing the cellulosic
fraction of MSW in megacities; De Vries et al. (2012) adopted LCA
methodology to study anaerobic mono-digestion and co-digestion of pig
manure to produce bioenergy.
In LCA, life cycle inventory consists of an inventory of inputs and
outputs related to the concerned study system. The quality of inventory
collected should be of a higher standard so that environmental impacts
from the processes can be represented scrupulously (Williams, 2009). In
the present study, Gabi Professional software, developed by Thinkstep,
was used for evaluating the environmental impacts of the MSWM in
Delhi city. The standards as per the ISO 14040 series were assimilated in
the present study. A critical review of the literature related to LCA
confirms it as an important decision-making tool for supporting de­
cisions and investments in MSWM systems (Bartolozzi et al., 2018).
Fig. 3 illustrates the interrelation of the first three life cycle analysis
A. Mandpe et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram for the general process of Life Cycle Assessment.
stages (Williams, 2009).
2.3. Goal and scope of the study
The objective of the present study was to use LCA as a tool to
compare different MSWM methods prevalent in Delhi city and to
determine the most viable management system based on its least impact
on the environment. The transportation of MSW, transfer stations,
composting, landfilling, and recycling plants was considered in the
scope of the study. Fig. 4 illustrates the system boundary of the present
study. A system boundary takes into account the complete life cycle and
is considered to begin at a point from where the waste is generated to the
point where the waste is treated. All inflows and outflows were quan­
titatively analyzed within the system boundary, i.e., electricity, biogas,
manure, leachate, recycled products, and emissions were considered.
The LCA study was conducted using GaBi 17.00 software and the CML-
1A method (CML, 2001).
Fig. 4. (a) Global warming potential of MSW management; (b) Eutrophication potential of MSW management; (c) Acidification potential of MSW management;
(d) Acidification potential of MSW management.
4
Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424
2.3.1. Functional unit
The functional unit provides common grounds for comparing results
(Cleary, 2009). The functional unit used in the present study was the
quantity of waste handled per day by the Municipal authorities, i.e.,
7310 TPD generated in Delhi city to demonstrate environmental impacts
resulting from waste management activities.
2.4. Life-cycle inventory
Life-cycle Inventory is a process that consists of detailed summari­
zation of all inputs (energy and raw material) and outputs (material
emissions) of a process or product (Williams, 2009). Data used for
developing the model were obtained from the Delhi Pollution Control
Committee (DPCC), site visits, previously published research articles
and the Gabi 17.00 database. The requisite details of the inventory data
taken into account for the LCA of the MSWM system are discussed in the
following sections.
2.4.1. Waste transport
The transportation route of MSW to the transfer stations is assumed
as 5 km. The distance travelled by the waste collection trucks to the
landfill sites, compost facilities and the recycling centres from the cen­
tral part of Delhi city is considered 24 km in the present study. The fuel
consumption involved in the transportation of waste and the unit pro­
cess for the transport was selected from the Gabi 17.00 database “Truck,
Bharat Stage IV, 12-14t gross weight/9.3t payload capacity”.
2.4.2. Transfer stations
According to Baidya et al. (2016), the power consumption of the
transfer station equipped with a compacter system is 10.3 kW. The water
requirement for cleaning purposes needed in the transfer station is
assumed to be 200 L/day.
A. Mandpe et al. Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424

2.4.3. Composting plant Table 2

The total amount of compostable waste reached the composting Inventory based on the functional unit for composting.
plant was about 5.88% of the total MSW generated in Delhi, i.e., 430 Input
TPD. The air emissions generated from the composting plant include
Area Amount Unit Reference
nitrous oxide, methane, and emissions due to fossil fuel consumption.
The power requirement per day for composting is 50 kWh. According to 8 hectare Kumar (2013)

(Gupta et al., 2016) , the total compost produced for the land application Power Consumption 50 Kw/day
was approximately 200 TPD. Compostable Waste 430 TPD DPCC, 2021

Output
2.4.4. Landfilling N2O emissions 11,920 kg CO2/ Sharma and Dikshit
The total amount of waste landfilled per day in Delhi city was around day (2016)
78.38% of the total MSW generated in Delhi city, i.e., 5730 TPD. Envi­ Emissions of CH4 10,000 kg CO2/ Sharma and Dikshit
ronmental issues arising from landfill sites include emissions of methane day (2016)
emissions due to fossil fuel 1121 kg CO2/ Sharma and Dikshit
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and leachate
consumption day (2016)
generation. electricity generation 450 kWh/day
Biogas Generation 300 m3/day
2.4.5. Recycling plant Manure 200 Tonnes/ (Gupta et al., 2016)
day
The total amount of waste reaching the recycling plant was around
9% (approximately 658 TPD) of the total MSW generated in Delhi. The
electricity and diesel requirement for the functioning of the Recycling
plant was taken from the GaBi 17.00 database. The details regarding Table 3
inventory for transfer station based on functional units is as shown in Inventory based on the functional unit for landfills.
Table 1, while the inventory for composting is presented in Table 2, and Input
for landfilling is presented in Table 3. Water Amount Unit Reference

200 L/day SDMC Report- Proposed Sanitary

3. Results and discussions Landfill at Okhla

Area 10.3 kW/day DPCC (2021)

An LCA model was established in the Gabi 17.00 software to analyze
HDPE liner 5730 kg/day Turner et al. (2016)
the impacts of each step of the MSWM system. For quantitative envi­ Gravel 573000 kg/day Turner et al. (2016)
ronmental potential impact assessment, the CML 2001 Life Cycle Impact
Output
Assessment (LCIA) method (CML, 2001) was used. Four impact cate­
gories were analyzed, namely Acidification Potential [Kg SO2-Equiv], CH4 8.77 Tonne/day Sharma and Dikshit (2016)
CO2 9.06 Tonne/day Sharma and Dikshit (2016)
Eutrophication Potential [Kg phosphate Equiv.], Global Warming Po­
N2O 0.083 Tonne/day Sharma and Dikshit (2016)
tential [Kg CO2.-Equiv], Photochemical Ozone Creation [Kg Leachate 100 Kilo litre/ SDMC Report - Proposed Sanitary
Ethene-Equiv.]. Generation day Landfill at Okhla

3.1. Global warming potential (GWP)

3.2. Eutrophication potential (EP)
GWP measures the amount of heat trapped by the GHGs in the at­
Eutrophication potential (EP) is the collective quantification of nu­
mosphere. The increasing emissions of GHGs like methane (CH4), carbon
trients (phosphorus and nitrogen) present in the water body through
monoxide (CO), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) in the
conversion into phosphorus equivalents (Edwards et al., 2018). The
air can lead to climate change, which can have an adverse effect on the
major reason for eutrophication is the nitrogenous emissions from
ecosystem (Bicer et al., 2016). The GWP impact category has been
landfills, fossil fuels and composting. Fig. 4(b) displays that the total EP
reviewed in most of the literature. In the present study, GWP was
of MSWM in Delhi was 55 kg phosphate eq per day. The landfill was
calculated for the next hundred years. Fig. 4(a) shows that the total GWP
found to be the major contributor to the eutrophication impact in Delhi,
impact of MSWM in Delhi was 2.94E005 kg CO2 eq per day. The landfill
i.e., 22.4 kg phosphate eq per day. The impact of transportation on
was a major contributor to emissions of GHGs in Delhi, i.e., 2.53E005 kg
eutrophication in MSWM in Delhi was also found to be high, and the EP
CO2 eq per day, while waste transportation was also found to produce a
impact of composting plant was found to be 11.1 kg phosphate eq. per
significant impact. The GWP of composting plants was found to be
day.
1.23E004 kg CO2 eq per day, while the contribution of the recycling
plant to GWP was fairly low.
3.3. Acidification potential (AP)

The interaction of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and sulphur dioxide gases

(SO2) with other atmospheric constituents results in acidification
Table 1 (Edwards et al., 2018). Fig. 4(c) shows that the total AP of MSWM in
Inventory based on the functional unit for the transfer station.
Delhi was 108 kg SO2 eq per day. Transportation of MSW in Delhi has
Input the maximum acidification impact. The combined per day impact of
Water Amount Unit Reference composting plant, landfill and recycling plant on acidification was found
200 L/day
to be comparatively low, i.e., 5.2 kg SO2 eq.

Power Consumption 10.3 kW/day Baidya et al. (2016)

3.4. Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP)
Output

Compostable waste 430 TPD DPCC (2021) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and
Landfilling waste 5730 TPD nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a precursor for the formation of ground-level
Recyclable waste 657.9 TPD
ozone in the presence of sunlight, and this phenomenon is termed as

5
A. Mandpe et al.
photochemical ozone creation potential. The total POCP of MSWM in
Delhi was found to be 20.7 kg ethane eq per day, as shown in Fig. 4(d). It
was also observed that the landfill has the greater POCP, i.e., 52.6 kg
ethene eq. per day.
4. Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity Analysis in LCA is a tool used to analyze the variation in
results by changing the subset of the input parameter. In other words, it
is a tool that is used to evaluate the impact of each process parameter
with the result. Sensitivity analysis is of utmost importance in order to
ensure the reliability of the results (Chiu and Lo, 2017). In the present
study, the sensitive analysis result is based on the increasing recycling
rate in the MSWM process ranging between 20 and 100%. With the in­
crease in recycling rate, the MSW going to landfill and composting plant
reduces significantly. Fig. 5 depicts the effects of an increase in the
recycling rate on impact categories. The impact categories GWP and EP
were found to decrease initially at a slower rate and later found to
decrease at a faster rate with the increment in recycling rate. In contrast,
AP shows a linear decrement rate from 108 to 75.6 kg SO2. On the other
hand, POCP also shows a linear decrement rate and reduces from − 21.1
to − 30.1 Kg ethene eq.
5. Conclusion and recommendation
Considering the present scenario of waste management, the total
waste collected and transported from the sites should be more with an
increase in the capacity to transport waste from far located landfills to
the waste recycling stations. Based on the geospatial analysis, two waste
recycling stations are proposed in the vicinity of existing waste man­
agement plants to reduce the time and cost of waste transport from the
landfills to the existing waste management plants. The solid waste
management system was optimized by considering the minimum dis­
tance in the shortest path model. The solid waste management sites were
Fig. 5. Sensitivity analysis depicting effects increasing recycling rate on various impact categories.
6
Environmental Research 212 (2022) 113424
optimized for the best route with minimum distance and cost. Based on
the shortest route, new waste management plants were proposed for the
two landfills located in Bawana and Bhalswa. Setting up these recycling
stations will reduce transportation costs and emissions approximately by
70%. Also, the LCA of MSWM of Delhi city indicates that transportation
emissions and landfilling are a potential threat to the environment.
Recycling of MSW is the most viable option and is needed to be adopted
for sustainable development. The sensitivity analysis results depicted
that the recycling of waste is inversely related to potential impact cat­
egories. The results indicated that increasing the recycling rate during
solid waste mangement will decrease the deteroirating impact on the
environment. The main parameters, such as GWP and EP are signifi­
cantly reduced, thus reducing the impact on the environment. Com­
posting on a smaller scale is also a suitable method, and local
communities need to be encouraged for practising household compost­
ing. Furthermore, there is a need for strict enforcement of rules and
regulations related to the MSWM system.
Credit author statement
Ashootosh Mandpe: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Visualization. Ayush­
man Bhattacharya: Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Review &
Editing. Sonam Paliya: Formal analysis, Writing - Review & Editing.
Vinay Pratap: Formal analysis, Investigation. Athar Hussain: Super­
vision. Sunil Kumar: Supervision, Resources, Review and Editing,
Project Administration.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
A. Mandpe et al.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Ashootosh Mandpe is grateful to the CSIR for the award of CSIR-
Direct SRF Fellowship. The authors acknowledge the Director, CSIR-
NEERI, for permitting to carry out this research work in the premises of
CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, India.
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