EE4209 Power System Protection

Fall 2023
Lecture 2

Akbar Ali Khan

Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
• The most common parameters to detect presence of fault are the
voltages and currents at the terminals of the protected apparatus, or
at zone boundaries.
• The relay inputs sometimes may also include states – open or closed
of some contacts or switches.
• Fundamental challenge is to distinguish between ‘normal’ and
‘abnormal’ state; within the specified zone.
• e.g. To distinguish b/w F1 and F2 in
the given arrangement

• Much analytical skills and

experience is needed to design
fault detection mechanisms.
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Level Detection
• Simplest detection mechanisms.
• The magnitude of subject parameter is being observed over a set upper/lower
bound
• Most common parameter is current.
• E.g. 2000hp motor operating at 4kV as shown would need
20*746/(0.9* 3*4)=240A.
• With a safety margin of 20% upper bound is 1.2*240=288A.
• Any current above this current, known as pickup setting,
should be detected as overcurrent/ abnormality.
• Pickup setting can be lower bound as well e.g. under voltage
relay
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Level Detection
• The operating time characteristics of level detection based relay system can have
definite time/inverse time characteristics on different type of relays.
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Magnitude Comparison
• Consider the relay system shown in fig.
• With the assumption of symmetrical lines, current IA and IB are supposed to
be nearly equal
• So if IA>IB+k and line B is not open, indicates some abnormality in line A so
the breaker at line is to be tripped.
• Same applies on IB>IA+k
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Differential Comparison
• Works on the comparison of incoming and outgoing current from a section
or equipment.
• I1-I2<(some tolerance) in normal conditions (can be detected by magnitude
comparison or level detection).
• I1-I2>(some tolerance) indicates an abnormal leakage current path within
equipment/section.
• Mainly used in equipment
protection as comparing two
extremes of a zone is impractical
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Phase Angle Comparison
• Phase angle between two electrical quantities can be observed for
abnormality e.g. between voltage and current.
• Typical angle between fault current and voltage would be aroud -90° or
180-90° for forward or reverse current flow respectively. Different from the
normal power factor angle.
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Distance Measurement
• The ratio of voltage and current on transmission line reflects the
impedance of the transmission line on relay
• Transmission line impedance consequently determines its length (or
distance) given the conductor nature and spacing.

Pilot Relaying
• Uses the information from a remote location relay through some
communication medium
• Usually relies on the status of contact.
• Typical application is in synchronized maintenance, coordination etc.
Fault Detection Mechanisms for Relaying
Harmonic Current
• Unusual harmonics are observed to check deviations from normality.
• Normal harmonics such as third harmonic in transformers are not counted.
• Other than that, harmonics can indicate abnormal switching/saturations.

Frequency Relaying
• System frequency deviations are too critical for stability of system.
• Frequency can be sensed by zero crossing counter in solid state relays or
digital sampling algorithms in numerical relays.
• Frequency deviations can signal corrective actions more than mere
tripping.