General Biology

Bio 110

Chapter 9
Contents:

PART V Microbiology Chapter 6

PART VI Plant Chapter 7

PART VII Animal Chapter 8
PART IX Genetic Basis of Life
a. Cell Cycle and Genetic Disorders Chapter 9
b. Classical Genetics and Modern Chapter 10
Biotechnology
 Part XI

GENETIC BASIS OF LIFE

a. Cell Cycle and Genetic Disorders
 Part XI: Genetic Basis of Life
a. Cell Cycle and Genetic Disorders

9.1 The Cell Cycle

a. Interphase
1. G1 Stage
2. S Stage
3. G2 Stage
b. M (Mitotic) Stage
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
9.2 Cytokinesis
a. Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
b. Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number to the Half
 Part XI: Genetic Basis of Life
a. Cell Cycle and Genetic Disorders
9.4 Meiosis versus Mitosis
a. Fundamental Differences
b. Occurrence
c. Process
❖ Meiosis I versus mitosis
❖ Meiosis II versus mitosis
9.5 The Cell Cycle and Cancer
a. Genetic Control of the Cell Cycle
1. Cell Cycle Checkpoints
2. Apoptosis
b. Characteristics of Cancer Cells
 9.1 The Cell Cycle

◼ Cell cycle; an orderly set of stages that take place between the time an
eukaryotic cell divides.
◼ The two portions of the cell cycle are the following (Figure 9.1):
◼ Interphase
◼ mitotic stage or cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis)
a. Interphase
◼ Most of cell cycle is spent in interphase (about 90% of cell cycle time).

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

9.1 The Cell Cycle

a. Interphase (cont’d):
◼ During interphase, preparations are being made for mitosis.
◼ Interphase consists of the following three stages:
1. G1 Stage
◼ The stage before and after DNA replication are G1 (stands for
Gap 1 or Growth 1) and G2, respectively.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

 9.1 The Cell Cycle
a. Interphase (cont’d):
1. G1 Stage (cont’d)
◼ During G1, the cell increases in size, doubles its organelles (such
as mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.) and accumulates materials that
will be used for DNA synthesis.
◼ Some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells, do not complete the
cell cycle and are permanently arrested; entered a G0 state.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

 9.1 The Cell Cycle:
a. Interphase (cont’d):
1. G1 Stage (cont’d)
◼ Other types of cells may not leave this stage without proper signals
from other cells and other parts of the body.
◼ Thus, completion of the cell cycle is very tightly controlled.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

9.1 The Cell Cycle
a. Interphase (cont’d):
2. S Stage
◼ After G1, cell enters S stage, where DNA synthesis (replication)
occurs.
◼ At the beginning of the S stage, each chromosome is composed
of one DNA double helix.
◼ Following DNA replication, each chromosome is composed of two
identical DNA double helix molecules.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

 9.1 The Cell Cycle
a. Interphase (cont’d):
2. S Stage (cont’d)
◼ Each double helix is called a chromatid
attached to each other at a region called
centromere (Figure 9.2).
◼ The two sister chromatids remain attached
until they are separated during mitosis.
Figure 9.2 Sister chromatids.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

 9.1 The Cell Cycle
a. Interphase (cont’d):
3. G2 Stage (cont’d)
◼ Following the S stage, G2 is the stage from the completion of DNA
replication to the onset of mitosis.
◼ During this stage, cell synthesizes proteins that will assist cell
division.
◼ Ex., it makes the proteins that form microtubules.
◼ Microtubules are used during mitosis to form mitotic spindle fibers.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

9.1 The Cell Cycle
b. M (Mitotic) Stage:
◼ Following interphase, the cell enters the M (for mitotic) stage.
◼ Mitosis permits growth and repair.
◼ This stage includes mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis
(division of the cytoplasm).
◼ During mitosis, sister chromatids are distributed by the mitotic spindle
fibers and two daughter cells (2n) are resulted.

Figure 19.1 Cell cycle.

 9.1 The Cell Cycle
b. M (Mitotic) Stage (cont’d):
◼ Mitosis is divided into four phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase (Figure 9.3 a).

1. Prophase
◼ During prophase, chromatin is
condensed, and chromosomes
are visible.
◼ Nucleolus disappears, nuclear
envelope fragments and
spindle begins to assemble.
◼ In animal cells, centrosomes
migrate away from one
another.
Figure 9.3 an Interphase and prophase.
9.1 The Cell Cycle
2. Metaphase
◼ During metaphase, the centromeres of chromosomes are aligned
on a single plane at the center of the cell.(Figure 9.3)
◼ An imaginary plane that is perpendicular and passes through this
circle is called the metaphase plate.
◼ Cell cycle (or M) checkpoint, delays start of anaphase until
centromere of each chromosome attaches properly to spindle
fibers made of microtubules(figure 9.4)

(Figure 9.4).
 9.1 The Cell Cycle
3. Anaphase
◼ Anaphase is the shortest phase of
mitosis.
◼ During anaphase, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome
separate at the centromere, giving rise
to two daughter chromosomes, each
with a centromere and single
chromatid composed of a single
double helix.
◼ The daughter chromosomes are being
pulled to the opposite poles.

Figure 9.3 c : Anaphase

 9.1 The Cell Cycle

4. Telophase

◼ During telophase, the spindle disappears

as new nuclear envelopes form around
the daughter chromosomes.

◼ Chromosomes become more relaxed

once again and a nucleolus appears in
each daughter nucleus.
◼ Each daughter nucleus contains the same
number (2n) and kinds of chromosomes
as original parent cell (2n).

Figure 9.3 c : Telophase

9.1 The Cell Cycle- Mitosis Cell Division Stages:
 Part IX a

11.2 Cytokinesis
 9.2 Cytokinesis
◼ Cytokinesis accompanies mitosis in most cells.
◼ When mitosis occurs but cytokinesis doesn’t occur, the result is a
multinucleated cell (4n).
◼ Division of the cytoplasm begins in anaphase but does not reach
completion until the following interphase.
◼ Cytokinesis proceeds differently in plant and animal cells.
a. Cytokinesis in Animal Cells:
◼ A cleavage furrow, which is an
indentation of the membrane between
the two daughter nuclei, forms just as
anaphase draws to a close (Figure
9.5).
◼ Then, cleavage furrow deepens when
a band of actin filaments, called the
contractile ring, is formed to separate
the cytoplasm until there are two
independent daughter cells. Figure 9.5 Cytokinesis in animal cells.
 9.2 Cytokinesis

b. Cytokinesis in Plant Cells (cont’d):

◼ Cytokinesis in plant cells occurs by a different process from that in
animal cells (Figure 9.6).
◼ The rigid cell wall that surrounds plant cells does not permit cytokinesis
by furrowing.
◼ Instead, cytokinesis in plant cells involves building of new cell walls
between daughter cells, where a small, flattened disk appears between
the two daughter cells near the site where the metaphase plate was.
◼ The Golgi apparatus is involved by producing vesicles, which move
along the microtubules to the region of the disk.

◼ The cell plate is a newly formed plasma

membrane that expands outward until it
reaches the sides of the cell and fuses
with it and strengthened by the addition of
cellulose fibrils to form the new cell wall.

Figure 9.6 Cytokinesis in plant cells.

 Part XI a

9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number

to the Half
 9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number to the Half

◼ In sexually reproducing organisms, meiosis is the type of nuclear division

that reduces chromosome number from diploid (2n) to the haploid (n)
during two cell divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II (Figure 9.7).
◼ In humans, diploid number of 46 chromosomes is usually reduced to the
haploid number of 23 chromosomes in the gametes (i.e., the sperm or
egg).
◼ Gamete formation and then fusion of gametes, to form a cell called a
zygote (2n), are parts of sexual reproduction, which undergoes
development to become an adult organism.
◼ Although replication occurs once, meiosis requires two nuclear divisions
and, hence, produces four haploid daughter cells.
◼ The daughter cells receive one chromosome of each parent, and,
therefore, might not be genetically identical to each others or to the
parental cells; a process called genetic recombination.
9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number to the Half

Figure 9.7
Overview of
meiosis.
9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number to the Half

◼ During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes come together and

lineup side by side; a process called synapsis (chromosome pairing)
to form a bivalent.

Figure 9.8 Crossing over at meiosis I.

◼ Then, crossover occurs between homologous chromosomes (Figure

9.8).
◼ At metaphase I, homologous pairs align at the metaphase plate and
then separate and move to opposite poles at Anaphase I.
◼ At the end of meiosis I , the chromosome number is reduced.
◼ Then, two daughter cells will have haploid number of chromosomes
(1n).
9.3 Meiosis; Reducing Chromosome Number to the Half

◼ During meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate.

◼ At the end, four daughter cells will contain the haploid number of
chromosomes, each consisting of a single chromatid.

Figure 9.7
Overview of
meiosis.
 Part XI a

9.4 Meiosis versus Mitosis

9.4 Meiosis versus Mitosis

a. Fundamental Differences:
◼ Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions, but mitosis requires
only one.
◼ Meiosis produces four daughter nuclei and four daughter
cells, while mitosis results in two daughter nuclei and two
daughter cells.
◼ The two daughter cells of mitosis are genetically identical to
each other and to the parent cell, while the four daughter
cells of meiosis are not – due to crossover and new
recombination.
b. Occurrence :
◼ Meiosis occurs only at certain times in the life cycle of
sexually reproducing organisms, while mitosis occurs in all
tissues and times during growth.
 9.4 Meiosis versus Mitosis
c. Process:
Meiosis I versus mitosis
◼ During prophase I, bivalents form and crossing over occurs.
◼ These events do not occur during mitosis.
◼ During metaphase I, bivalents independently align at metaphase
plate.
◼ The paired chromosomes have a total of four chromatids each.
◼ During metaphase in mitosis, individual chromosomes (univalent)
align at the metaphase plate.( Table 9:1 a)

Table 9:1a : meiosis I vs Mitosis

 9.4 Meiosis versus Mitosis
c. Process (con’d):
◼ During anaphase I of meiosis, chromosome pairs with intact
centromeres separate (chromosomal segregation) and move to
opposite poles.
◼ During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate (chromatid
segregation) and move to opposite poles.
Meiosis II versus mitosis( Table 9:1 b)
◼ The events of meiosis II are similar to those of mitosis except in
meiosis II, the nuclei contain the haploid number of chromosomes.

Table 9:1 b : meiosis I vs Mitosis

.
9.4 Mitosis vs Meiosis Review:
Mitosis
Occurs in somatic cells (body cells)
Produce body cells
Require one cell division
Mitosis permits growth and repair.
Produce Two identical daughter cells
No crossing over
Two daughter cells have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. (2n)
In metaphase individual chromosomes
univalent (two chromatids) align at the
metaphase plate.
In anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids
separate (chromatid segregation) and move to centromeres separate (chromosomal segregation)
opposite poles
in mitosis, the nuclei contain the diploid
number of chromosomes.
Meiosis
Occurs in gonads (ovary and tests)
Produce sex cells(eggs and sperms)
Require two cell divisions(meiosis I and meiosis
II)
Meiosis permits for reproduction
Produce four different daughter cells
Has crossing over in prophase I and genetic
recombination.
the Four daughter cells have the half number of
the parent cell chromosomes(1n)
In metaphase I, bivalents ( four chromatids) align
at metaphase plate.
In anaphase I chromosome pairs with
and move to opposite poles.
In meiosis II, the nuclei contain the haploid
number of chromosomes.
 Part XI a

9.5 Genetic Control of the Cell Cycle

 9.5 Genetic Control of the Cell Cycle:

Cells arrested in G0 will finish (continue) the cell cycle if stimulated to do so

by growth factors.
◼ The following are ways to genetically control cell cycle:
1. Cell Cycle Checkpoints:
◼ The red barriers in Figure 9.1 represent three checkpoints, when the
cell cycle either stops or continues, depending on internal signals it
receives.

Figure 9.1 Cell cycle.

 9.5 The Cell Cycle and Cancer

◼ Specific signaling proteins called cyclins must be present for the cell to
proceed from the G1 to the S stage and for the cell to proceed from the
G2 stage to the M stage.
◼ In mammalian cells, the signaling protein p53 (p stands for protein and
53 stands for a molecular weight of 53 kDa) stops the cycle at G1
checkpoint if DNA is damaged.
◼ Then, p53 attempts to initiate DNA repair, but rising levels of damage
bring about programmed cell death or apoptosis and cell withdrawn from
cell division to die.
◼ The cell cycle may also stop at the G2 checkpoint if DNA has not
finished replicating.
◼ This prevents initiation of the M stage before completion of the S stage.
◼ If DNA is physically damaged, such as from exposure to solar radiation
or X-rays, G2 checkpoint also offers the opportunity for DNA to repair.
◼ Another cell cycle checkpoint occurs during the mitotic stage.
◼ The cycle stops if the chromosomes are not properly attached to the
mitotic spindle.
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