Cell Division

1. Cause of mitosis: Kern Plasm theory → MitosIs

Occurs due to disturbance in Karyoplasmic Index (KI) for all.

Karyoplasmic index ⇒ KI = Vn

Vc-Vn
Where Vn = volume of nucleus
Vc = volume of cytoplasm
Vc-Vn = volume of cytoplasm - volume of nucleus

Nucleus efficiency control the activity of cytoplasm in small cells. In large cell nucleus fail to
control the activity of cytoplasm. To attain the control of nucleus on metabolism a large
number of cell divides into two cells.

2. Surface-volume ratio
● If surface growth becomes less than volume growth

Cell Cycle → The sequence of event by which a cell replicate its genome, synthesise the
other constituents of cell and eventually divides into two daughter cell if termed as
Cell-Cycle.

⇒ Yeast cell cycle → 90 min

⇒ Human cell cycle → 24 Hours generally.

Cell cycle involves two stages ⇒

1. Interphase
2. M phase (Mitotic phase)

1. Interphase ⇒
a. Phase between successive M-phase.
b. These cell grows in size and prepares itself for the next division
c. Most active phase and last for more than 95% of duration of all cycle.
d. it hase ⇒
i. G1 phase (Gap -1)
ii. S phase (Synthesis)
iii. G2 phase (Gap-2)

i. G1 Phase ⇒
● Corresponds to interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
● Cell grows maximum in G1 stage
most cell organelles increases in cell and cell rapidly synthesises different type of RNA
and protein.
 ii. S - Phase ⇒
a. Replication of nuclear DNA and synthesis of histone protein takes place in S
Phase. But replication of cytoplasmic DNA may occur in any stage of Cell Cycle.
b. The amount of DNA per cell doubles. If initial amount is 2C then it becomes 4C.
But even after S - Phase the chromosomes numbers remain the same (2n).
■ So in S Phase DNA reflection and chromosome duplication takes place.
(DNA content is double in each chromosome).

In animal cell, during the S-phase , DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the
centriole amplification in the cytoplasm. [in cate s - phase].

iii. G2 - Phase ⇒ Tubulin Protein (Required for formation of spindle fiber takes place in
this phase.
iv. G0 -Phase ⇒
b. It is an inactive stage called as quiescent stage.
c. But in this stage the cell remains metabolically active but no longer proliferate
unless called to do so
d. Heart cells and many other cell (Don’t divide).
which divides occasionally exit G1 phase and then directly enters G0 Phase.

Extra Cell Cycle Control ⇒ [by cycle ⇒ cyclin calendar kinases].

⇒ Kinase is an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from ATP and add to another
protein.
⇒ Kinase here is called colk because they are activated when combined with koy protein
called cyclin.

● S - Kinase is capable of sorting replication of DNA after combining with S - Cyclin.

After some time S-Cyclin is destroyed and S - Kinase is no longer active.

M - Kinase is capable of turning on mitosis after it has lived with M - cyclin.

M - Phase ⇒
● No Clear cut divisions in four stage
● Prophase
● Metaphase
● AnaPhase
● Telophase
States with nuclear division, corresponding to separation of daughter chromosome
(naryo kinases) and ends with division of cytoplasm.

● Mitosis is called equationation division ⇒ because number if chromosomes in parent

and progeny cells remains same.

1. Prophase ⇒
a. Longest in M - Phase
b. After G2 it occurs and new DNA molecules formed aren’t distinct but interwined.
c. Marked by initiation of congestion of chromosomal material.
d. Chromosomes untangle during process of chromatin condensation then
composed of two chromatids attached together at centromere.
e. Centrioles,which has undergone Duplication during S phase of interphase,now
begins to move towards opposite pole of cell.

Completion:
1. Marked by assembly of mitotic spindle,the microtubules.
2. At end of prophase,when viewed under microscope,don’t show
golgi complexes,endoplasmic meticulous,nucleus and nuclear envelope.

Metaphase: ⇒ At this stage morphology of chromatin is most easily studied.

a. Marked by complete disintegration of nuclear envelope and chromosomes
spread through the cytoplasm of cell.
b. All chromosomes comin to lie at the equate with one chromatids of each
chromosomes connected by it’s kinetochore to spindle fibres from the opposite
pole by chromosomal fibres.
c. The plane of alignment of chromosomes at metaphase is referred as
metaphase.
d. spindle fibre- 97% tubulin protein 3% .
e. Chromosomal fibres have polarity tendat equator and end poles.

●
Anaphase ⇒ (shortest)
a. Interzonal fibres appears at equator.
b. Centromere split and sister chromatids separate and each get referred to as individual
chromosomes.So chromosomes no doubles.
c. By pulling and pushing by interzonal fibres chromosomes rapidly move towards
opposites poles,with centromere towards poles and arm trailing behind.
● 30 ATP required to carry a chromosomes to pole.

Telophase ⇒ (Reverse Prophase)

a. Chromosomes at their respective poles and lose their individually and tends to collect
in a mass in two poles.
b. Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosomes dusters.
c. Nuclear, golgi complex and ER reform.

Cytokinesis ⇒ Segregation of duplicated chromosomes into

daughter nuclei (karyokinesis) has completed but cell divides
by cytoniness.

In animal ⇒ Constriction and furrow formation occurs in centripetal

and furrow formation occurs in centripetal order i.e from periphery
centre

In plants ⇒
a. Constriction not possible to rigid cell wall occurs by cell plate formation by golgi
vesicles fusion.
b. Cell plate further modifies into middle lamella at centre.
c. At time of cytoplasmic division ,organelles time
d. mitochondria and plastids get distributed between
two adjacent cells.
e. In plant cell it centrifugal( from centre to periphery).

Important ⇒ In some organisms karyokinesis not

followed by cytokines as a result of which multi nuclear
structure.arises leading to formation of syncytium
.e.g Liquid endosprem in coconut.
 MODIFICATION OF MITOSIS
1. Cryptomitosis or Promitosis ⇒ Here nuclear membrane doesn’t disappear but
remain intact throughout the division.All changes of karyokinesis occurs inside
nucleus even the formation of spindle.called as intranuclear spindle.
Example: Amoeba during binary fusion.
2. Dinomitosis ⇒Here they are occurring in mesokaryotic cells where histone is
absent .so nuclear membrane perrists.
Example: Dinoflagellates.
3. Endometriosis ⇒ Duplication of chromosomes without division of nucleus
Endomitosis leads to polyploidy.
# Colchicine induces polyploidy in plants it is a mitotic poison as it
arrests the formation of spindle fibre.
4. Endoreduplication ⇒ The Chromatids replicate but don’t get separated. This
process is called polyteny
● Mustard gas and Ribonucleases are also mitotic poisons

Meiosis ⇒
a. Meiosis -1 is reductional division i.e reduction in chromosomes number
Division.of chromosomes doesn’t occur in mitosis and only separation of
homologous chromosomes (Bivalent) takes places.
b. Meiosis 1 initiated after the parental chromatids have replicated to produce
identical sister chromatids of S phase involves Recombination between
homologous chromosomes.
c. Meiosis-2 ⇒
a. it is dust equational division live mitotic and division of centromere occurs
during meiosis-2.
b. Four haploid cells formed at end of meiosis-2.
● In meiosis division of nucleus takes place twice but division of chromosomes
occurs only once.
● Interphase same as mitosis.

Stages of meiosis-2
1) Prophase -1
2) Metaphase -1
3) Anaphase -1
4) Telophase-1
1. Zygotene or synaptoten ⇒
a. Pairing of homologous chromosomes ( process called
synapse)pairs of homologous chromosomes is called bivalent.
b. Chromosomes synapsis is accompanied by formation of
complex structure called synaptonemal complex.

2. Leptotene ⇒
a. chromatin threads condense to form chromosomes.
b. Visible under light microscope.

Synaptonemal complex ⇒ Three thrice lines of DNA and protein.

It helps in pairing and chromata formation.

3. Pachytene ⇒
a. Initiated by homologous chromosomes tightly covered around each other.
b. Each chromosomes is a bivalent at a pachytene stage distinctly show two chromatids
(total four chromatids)as result chromatids bivalent really consists of four chromatids and
is called tetrads.
Recombination nucleus between nonsister chromatids of homologous pair develop
which is site of crossing over.
Cross over takes place between these non sister chromatids.

Crossover ⇒ Enzyme mediated and enzymes is recombine [Endonuclease+Ligase]

Endonuclease break non sister chromatids at place of recombination nuclue.
a. Non sister chromatids reunite after exchanging their parts by enzyme ligase.As a
result chiasmata form is bivalent.
b. Number of chiasmata depends on length of chromosomes.

Diplotene ⇒
a. Dissolution of synaptonemal complex.

b. Repulsion of homologous chromosomes of bivalents to separate from each other

except at the site of crossover.

Diakinesis ⇒
a. Termination of Chiasmata.

b. Chromosomes fully condensed and mitotic spindle assembled to prepare the

separation of homologous chromosomes.

c. By and nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

d. Centriole move towards opposite poles.

 Metaphase-1 ⇒
a. Bivalent arrange on equator of cell to form metaphase plate.
b. Microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.

THREE TYPES OF SPINDLE FIBRES

1) Chromosomal / Kinetochore spindle fibres.

2) Supporting / continuous spindle fibres.
3) Interzonal Spindle fibres

Anaphase-1 ⇒

a. Homologous chromosomes separate and moved towards poles due to shortening of

chromosomal fibre and expansion of interzonal fibres.

b. It is characterised by division of chromosomes and division of centromere is absent

line.

c. Anaphase of mitosis - Thus Anaphase-1 is responsible for reduction in chromosomes

number in daughter cells.

Telophase-1 ⇒ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.

Cytokinesis-1 ⇒ Diploid (2n) cell divides into two haploid(n) daughter cells.
The gap between - meiosis and meiosis called interkinesis and preparation of meiosis-2
short lived and can’t be termed as interphase because replication of DNA is absent.
Meiosis-2 ⇒
a. Nuclear membrane disappears.
b. Chromosomes again become compact.

Metaphase-2 ⇒
a. Chromosomes aline at equator.
b. Spindle from opposite poles get attached to kinetochore of sister chromatids.

Anaphase-2 ⇒
a. Simultaneous splitting of centromere of each chromosome,allowing then to move
towards opposite poles of cell.

Telophase-2 ⇒
Nuclear membrane develops .

cytokines -2 ⇒ Resulting in formation of tetrads of cells

i.e Four haploid cells [They are genetically different from each other]

TYPES OF MEIOSIS

1) Zygotic Initial meiosis– Meiosis in zygote cell e.g algae, Fungi

2) Sporic meiosis or intermediate meiosis - meiosis during sphere formation all plants
except algae

3) Gametic /Terminal meiosis – Meiosis during gamete formation .Eg -Animals .

● AMITOSIS
1) Most primitive type.
2) Condensation of chromosomes doesn’t occur and the process in division without
recognizable chromosomes.
3) No of formation of spindle and division of nucleolus and cytoplasm is direct and
simultaneously ,by constriction [without phases line prometa etc].
4) Fastest cell division division may be equal or unequal.
5) It is cell division in prokaryotes but with some exception in eukaryotes.
● Yeast ⇒ Building by amitosis
● Amoeba ⇒ Multiple fission by amitosis.
● Paramecium ⇒ Division of meganucleus .
● Mammals ⇒ Growth of foetal membrane (amnion ,chorion)

Mitochondria and chloroplast divides by amitosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Prophase. a. Cross over and chiasma
a. Cross over and chiasma seen.
not seen. b. Bivalent and four
Metaphase. chromatids
b. Chromosomes are mono c. Centromeres protects
value and has two towards the poles.
chromatids. d. Centromere division does
c. Centromeres present over not occur in alpha phase-1
equator metaphase plate e. Do not separate
while arms facing forwards f. Are dissimilar
the pales. g. Telophase - 1 may be
d. Anaphase: Centromere absent.
divides. h. Not compulsory
e. Sister chromatids separate (simultaneously after both
and becomes as daughter the divisions in plants).
chromosomes. i. All four daughter cells are
f. Chromosomes moving different.
towards the opposite pole j. interphase may or may not
are similar present prior to meiosis - ii
g. Nucleolus and NM if present then all
reappear. interninesis S -Phase -
h. Cytoninuis takes place. absent.
i. Daughter cell posses same
genetic continent.
j. S - Phase present.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
However ,in some plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divide by
mitosis .It is very essential to understand the significance of this division in the life of
an organism .Are you aware of some examples where you have studied about
haploid and diploid insects ?
Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical
genetic complement .The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis .Cell
growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.It
therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic
ratio.A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair .The cells of the upper
layer of the epidermis ,cells of the lining of the gut ,and blood cells are being
constantly replaced.Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues-the apical and the
lateral cambium .result in a continuous growth of plants throughout their life.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosomes number of

each species is achieved across generations in sexually reproducing organisms
,even though the process ,per se paradoxically ,results in reduction of chromosomes
number by half .It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms
from one generation to the next .Variations are very important for the process of
evolution.