Chapter 5 – The Mitotic Cell Cycle

A. Growth & Reproduction

 Growth and reproduction are two examples of living organism characteristics. Living organism are
made of cells so that cells must be able to grow and reproduce.

Growth
 Growth is the increase in cells size and number that take place during the life history of an organism.
Growth can be happened in cells, animals and as well as humans.
 Additional information:
There is also abnormal growth such as tumours, cancer, regeneration and compensatory growth.

Reproduction
 Reproduction is the biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring that is
biologically similar to the organism. Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species,
generation after generation. It is main feature of life on earth.
 How?
Cells reproduce by dividing and passing on copies of their genes to 'daughter' cells. The process
must be very precisely controlled so that no vital genetic information is lost.
 Nucleus in cell reproduction
 Nucleus always divides before the cell divides.
 Each of the two cells therefore contains its own nucleus.
 Nucleus controls the cell’s activities & nucleus contain genetic material, DNA which it will be
the instruction or code, for life (Chapter 6).
 Human Cell
 Gametes: All the cells in the bodies of multicellular organisms are genetically identical.
 This is because they all come from one cell which is zygote.
 In human reproduction is happening when one gamete from mother and one gamete from
father fused together.
 The zygote starts the process of growth, it divides into two cells with identical nuclei.
 This involves a type of nuclear division followed by cell division continues to be repeated in a
cycle called the mitotic cell cycle to produce all the cells of our body (around 30 trillion in
average human
B. Chromosomes
 Chromosomes: a long DNA of a molecule with genetic material
found in nuclei of cells that has the Information to be copied
accurately in cell division.
 ”chromo”: colored & “somes”: body.
 Humans normally have 46 chromosomes
 Telomeres are critical for maintaining genes.
 Genes are the rules of a cell and how to duplicate
 Centromere (holds the 2 chromatids together (no genes))
 2 identical chromatids to make one chromosome. (Each contains
1 DNA molecule)

 Chromosomes are actually “I” like structures.

 The “X” you see in chromosomes, are a double structure
connected by the centromere. these are called sister chromatids.
 This is because it is during a period between a nuclear division called a interphase, where it will
make an identical copy of itself.

C. The Cell Cycle

 Cell Cycle: the sequence of events that takes
place between one cell division and the next
 Mitosis – The division of a nucleus into two.
The daughter cells have exactly the same
number and type of chromosomes as the
parent cell
 3 Phase of Cell Cyle:
1. Interphase (G1, G2)
2. Nuclear division (Mitosis)
3. Cell division (Cytokinesis)

D. Phases in Cell Cycle

1) Interphase
 Cell grows to its normal size after cell division
 A signal may be received that the cell should divide again
2) G1 phase
 Gap after cell division and before S phase
 Cells make the RNA, enzymes and other protein needed for growth.
3) S – DNA synthesis
 The phase of replicating DNA
4) G2 phase
 Gap after S phase and before cell division
 The cell continues to grow and new DNA is checked
 The cell will prepare to begin the process of division in this phase.
 Ex: a sharp increase in production of protein tubulin ( to make microtubules for mitotic spindle.
5) Nuclear division
 referred to as the M phase ( M for mitosis)
 Growth stop temporarily
 6) Cell division
 Whole cell divides to create 2 genetically identical cells
 In animal cell – constriction of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
 In plant cell – formation of a new cell wall
NB: The length of cell cycle is very variable. Depending on environmental conditions and cell type

QUESTIONS

ANS: A

ANS: B

E. Mitosis
 Things you are expected to know before understanding the stages:
 Most nuclei contain many chromosomes, but the diagrams show a cell containing only four
chromosomes.
 Blue coloured chromosome - male
 Red coloured chromosome- female
Interphase
longest part of the cell cycle.
This is when the cell grows and copies its DNA before moving into mitosis.
interphase takes place between one mitotic (M) phase and the next.
Mitosis in plant cells vs animal cells
The behaviour of chromosomes in plant cells is identical to that in animal cells. However, plant cells
differ in two ways:
 Plant cells don’t contain centrosomes. Instead, the nuclear envelope functions as a MTOC for
spindle formation.
 After the nuclear division of a plant cell, a new cell wall must form between the daughter nuclei.
 A Short Summary of Mitosis

Early Prophase Late Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase

 Chromosome  Nuclear  Centrosome  Chromatid  Nucleolus  Single
s appear envelope helping s move to reforming chromatid
disappears organise the  Nuclear replicates
 Nucleolus production of opposite envelope  Centrosome
disappears spindle poles reforming s replicate
 Centrosome microtubules  Chromatid
s form poles  Chromosome s uncoil
of spindle s line up at again
 Spindle is equator  Cytokinesi
formed s (not a
part of
Telophase
but
happens
after it)

Stage of Mitosis in An Animal Cell

Stages of Mitosis in a Plant Cell

Centrosomes and centrioles

Centrosomes are located at the poles of the spindle, one at each pole.
The centrosome is an organelle found in animal cells that acts as a microtubule organising centre
(MTOC).
Centrosomes are responsible for making the spindle, which is made of microtubules.
The spindle if needed for separation of the chromatids.
Each centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a large number of proteins. It is
these proteins that control production of the microtubules, not the centrioles.
Plant mitosis occurs without centrosomes.

Centromeres
The centromere holds the chromatids together, but is also involved in the separation of chromatids
during mitosis.
During mitosis, the centromere is the site of attachment of spindle microtubules.
Each metaphase chromosome has two kinetochores at its centromere, one on each chromatid.
The kinetochores are made of protein molecules which connect the centromere to the spindle
microtubules.
 Bundle of microtubules called spindle fibres extend from the kinetochores to the poles of the
spindle during mitosis
Kinetochore: a protein structure found at the
centromere of chromatid to which microtubules
attach during nuclear division

Importance of Mitosis
1) Growth of multicellular organisms
 The two daughter cells formed after mitosis have the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell & are genetically identical.
 This allows growth of multicellular organisms from unicellular zygotes.
 Growth may occur over the entire body, as in animals, or be confined to certain regions, as in
the meristems (growing plants) of plants

2) Replacement of damaged or dead cells & repair of tissues by cell replacement

 This is possible using mitosis followed by cell division.
 Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by identical cells.
 In the human body, for example, cell replacement is particularly rapid in the skin and in the
lining of the gut.
 Some animals are able to regenerate whole parts of the body; for example, starfish can
regenerate new arms

3) Asexual Reproduction
 Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction: the production of new individuals of a species by a single parent
organism without changing the amount the number of chromosomes.
 The offspring are genetically identical to the parents.
 Forms of asexual reproduction:
 For unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, cell division results in reproduction.
 For multicellular organisms, new individuals may be produced which bud off from the
parent.
  Budding – common in plants.
Most commonly a form of vegetative propagation in which a bud on part of the stem simply
grows a new plant.
 The new plant eventually detaches from the parent and lives independently.
 The bud may be part of the stem of an overwintering structure such as a bulb or tuber.
 The ability to generate whole organisms from single cells or small groups of cells is important in
biotechnology and genetic engineering, and it is the basis of cloning

4) Immune Response
 The cloning of B- and T-lymphocytes during the
immune response is dependent on mitosis.
 Lymphocytes: A type of immune cell/white blood
cell that is made in the bone marrow and is found in
the blood and in lymph tissue.
 Additional explanation:
B-lymphocytes - antibodies
T- lymphocytes - directly kill pathogens
Mitosis helps in cloning these lymphocytes and
helps in building our immune system.

QUESTIONS

ANS: B
 ANS: D

ANS: B

ANS: B

F. The Roles of Telomeres

Telomeres: structures made from DNA sequences & proteins
found at the ends of chromosomes.
They cap and protect the end of a chromosome like the end of
a shoelace.
In almost all animals, from the simplest to the most complex,
telomeres are required for cell division.
The main function:
1) to prevent the loss of genes during cell division
2) to allow the replication of a cell.
How does it work?
  Telomeres work by making the DNA a bit longer. They have no useful information, but allows the
copying enzyme to complete all the meaningful DNA.
 Telomerase, as an enzyme that performs the role of adding bases to telomere, is present to avoid
the risk of losing genes and to prevent the loss of telomere.
 Some cells (generally specialised cells) do not have telomerase to ‘top up’ their telomeres and
therefore after a certain number of cell divisions the cell dies, this has been connected with the
ageing process

G. The role of stem cells

 A stem cell: an unspecialized cell that retains
the ability to divide an unlimited amount of
times by mitosis.
 When it divides, each new cell has the
potential to remain a stem cell or to develop
and become a specialized cell.
 Examples of specialized cells: muscle cells,
blood cells, skin cells, etc.
 There are more than 200 types of cells in an
adult human body.
Main Types of Stem Cells:
1) Embryonic
Embryonic stem cells supply new cells for an embryo as it grows and develops into a baby.
These stem cells are said to be pluripotent, which means they can change into any cell in the
body.
After the zygote was formed in fertilization, some cells become specialized to form the placenta,
while others lose the ability but can form all the cells that will lead to the development of the
embryo and later the adult.

2) Adult
Adult stem cells supply new cells as an organism grows and to replace cells that get damaged.
The more ‘committed’ the cells, the more they lose their ability to divide until most of them
don’t divide, which happens within an adult.
Adult stem cells are said to be multipotent, which means they can only change into some cells
in the body, for example:
1. Blood stem cells can only replace the various types of cells in the blood.
2. Skin stem cells provide the different types of cells that make up our skin and hair.

Stem cell Therapy

 Cells, tissues and organs can sometimes be permanently
damaged or lost by disease, injury & genetic conditions.
 Stem cell therapy: the introduction of new adult stem cells
into damaged tissue to treat disease or injury.
 Adult stem cells are currently used to treat some conditions.
 For example, skin stem cells can be used to generate new skin
for people with severe burns.
  An example of this therapy is a bone marrow transplant, which are used to treat blood and bone
marrow diseases, and blood cancers (e.g. leukaemia).

H. Cancers
Cancers: A group of diseases that result from a
breakdown in the usual control mechanisms
that regulate cell division; certain cells divide
uncontrollably and form tumours, from which
cells may break away and form secondary
tumours (metastasis)
Telomerase are the enzymes responsible for
the cancer cell’s ability to avoid death
By extending the telomere, and extending
lifespan
It is the seemingly endless division that results
in the formation of tumours

Lung Cancer
Leading cause of cancer death, second most common cancer in the
United States
Tumours can be seen on the picture, found on page 135 on the book
Causes: Carcinogens like Tobacco and breathing in secondhand smoke.

Tumour
 Tumour: A solid mass of tissue, a group of abnormal cells that serves no
(positive) purpose
 Types of Tumours:
1) Benign tumours
A (mostly) harmless for of tumours, being just a bunch of tissue, only
requires treatment when it presses against body parts
2) Malignant tumours
The “cancerous” form of tumours, where it destroys and actively
harms your body

Carcinogens
 Carcinogens: A substance that causes cancer, may be natural (ultra-violet rays) or man made
(cigarette smoke)
 Ex: Tobacco, Radon, Engine Exhaust Fumes, and Processed Meat
 Effects & Examples:
 An example of a Carcinogen’s effects can be seen on Lung cancer.
 When smoking, the Lung tissues get damaged by the inhaled smoke
 The damages include mutations and therefore changes in DNA
 Which causes the cells to “malfunction” and divide uncontrollably and harmfully.