Interchange and Automatic Generation

Control Review

Controlling frequency and interchange

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AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Operating a power system is basically the process of maintaining several sets of balances. Two
of those balances are load vs. generation and scheduled tie line flows vs. actual tie line flows.
The load — generation balance is determined by frequency. We maintain both of these
balances by adjusting generation. If frequency is low, we increase generation; if actual outflow
is greater than scheduled outflow, we
decrease generation. Since system
conditions are always changing as load
constantly varies, precise manual
control of these balances would be
impossible. Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) was developed to both
maintain a (nearly) constant frequency
and to regulate tie line flows. The main
input to AGC is the Area Control Error
(ACE). AGC has three operational
modes for use under different
conditions. Other related subjects
having to do with frequency and tie
line flows include time error,
inadvertent interchange, and
scheduling. AGC operation also
includes economic dispatch and control
of remote generation. The figure on
the right shows the three AGC
controls.

It can be stated that “every system in the universe must be in balance.” Any system not in
balance must find a new balance point before it destroys itself. Whether or not this is true in
every case, it certainly is true in a power system. Balance is seldom a static condition; dynamic
systems are always moving one way or another from the balance point. If the system is stable,
restoring forces try to bring it back into balance. This section deals with the balance between
electrical load and generation. People in the electric utility business often say, “This is the only
business in the world where the product is requested, produced, transported, and consumed all
in the same instant.” That statement is true, and it implies a very dynamic situation.

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SYSTEM INERTIA

Suppose the system is in

balance with load being
served at a frequency of
60 Hz, then a sizeable
load is suddenly added to
the system. The
frequency drops, but the
load is still served.
Where does the
additional energy come
from?
We learned that rotor
angle is the angle by
which the rotor (and its
rotating magnetic field
and associated voltage)
leads or lags the terminal
voltage of the stator. We
also learned that rotor
angle is the most significant factor in getting power out of a synchronous generator. When
more power is needed, we increase the prime mover input (steam, water, or fuel) and
mechanically push the rotor into a greater leading angle. The result is increased power output.
Adding load also increases the rotor angle by causing the terminal voltage to lag further behind
the rotor. Since there is, as yet, no increase in the turbine input, the increased energy is supplied
out of the kinetic energy of the generators. The generators are large masses rotating at high
speed and therefore contain a great deal of kinetic energy. Removing some of that energy slows
their speed of rotation because the mechanical power input is now less than the electrical power
output. The result is a frequency decline. How much the frequency declines depends upon the
ratio of the size of the load increase to the size of the system. A sudden load addition or
generation loss of 100 MW is hardly noticeable on the full WECC network, but on a 200 MW
isolated system, it could cause a system shutdown.
As the frequency decreases, frequency sensitive loads (e.g., induction motors) reduce their
demands. This helps to arrest the frequency decline, but usually is not sufficient to stop it
altogether. This is where the governors on generating units come in.

UNIT GOVERNORS

After a short delay, generating unit governors respond to the declining frequency by causing
valves or gates to open to increase the input to prime movers. It is a common misconception
that the unit governors are attempting to restore frequency to 60 Hertz. In reality, they are only
attempting to restore the balance of load and generation, using frequency change as the
indication that an unbalanced condition exists. Once the frequency has stabilized at a new
value, governor action ceases. The governor has fulfilled its function when power being
generated exactly matches the power being demanded (load). The chart in Figure 2 shows a
typical frequency response to a sudden loss of generation or increase in load.

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Note that the frequency
“spikes” to about 59.85
Hz then quickly recovers
to about 59.9 Hz. Due to
the delay in governor
response, the system
overshoots to Point C.
Then governor response
stops the decline and the
system frequency
rebounds to the higher
level (Point B). Over the
next few minutes, the
frequency returns to 60
Hz., not due to governor
action, but because system
operators are increasing
generation or reducing
load to restore the system
balance.

Figure 3 illustrates the mechanical actions taken by a “flyweight” governor. Increasing speed
causes the flyweights to move outward, raising the moveable collar, to which is attached a
control rod. The rod pivots around point f and pushes the control valve downward to reduce
steam flow. Note that there is no 60 Hz reference. The governor acts only as long as the speed
(frequency) is changing. When the speed stabilizes, the governor settles into its new set point
and stays there until it is caused to change again by changing speed. If we want to change the
governor’s “set point,” we do so by sending raise or lower signals to the speed changer. In
response to those signals, the speed c hanger adjusts the position of the pivot point, f.

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What is actually controlling the
governor response is its “droop
setting.” This is the governor
function that dictates the relationship
between speed and power output.
The WECC Minimum
Operating Reliability Criteria
require a 5% (3 Hz) droop setting on
all governors in WECC. That means
the governor is set to respond
through the full range of unit
capability for a 5% (3 Hz) change in
frequency. That is, for a unit
operating at 60 Hz and no load, a 3-
Hz drop in frequency would cause
the governor to attempt to take the
unit to full load. For smaller
changes, it responds proportionately less, but always on the 5% droop curve.

Practical operating considerations, particularly on steam units, prevent the units from actually
responding over their full range, but the governor droop setting is still 5%. In mathematical
terms, the slope of the droop
curve is -5%. Of course, we are
unlikely to ever see a 3 Hz
frequency deviation unless the
system were to break up into
small islands.

Figure 5 illustrates what happens

when a unit with a 5% droop
setting responds to a sudden
decline in frequency.

The unit is initially operating at

half load (200 MW) at 60 Hz as
shown in Figure 4 (po int A).
Somewhere in the Interconnection, a large generator trips, and a generation shortage
results. The remaining units give up some of their rotating kinetic energy to increase power
output, and the frequency declines. In response to the frequency decline, governors open
control valves, increasing prime mover input to the turbines. Frequency declines to Point C,
however, before governor action takes effect. When the governor has fully responded, our
sample unit has reached 267 MW output and is back on its droop curve at Point B, with
frequency at 59.5 Hz. The system with the problem increases generation or reduces load to
restore the balance. This action reduces the rotor angle on our sample unit and its speed
increases (mechanical input greater than electrical output). As the frequency increases, the

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governor reduces the mechanical
input, and when the system has
returned to normal, our sample
unit is back at point A (200 MW
at 60 Hz). Had this unit been
inside the affected system, it
might have ended up at point D
(267 MW at 60 Hz).

Figure 6 illustrates what happens

when two units of equal size but
different droop settings are
sharing the load. Unit A has a
droop setting of 5% while unit B
is set at 3%. When the frequency
deviation occurs, unit B must
provide a greater generation
decrease to reach its droop
curve at the higher frequency. If a 3% droop setting provides a greater response to the same
change in frequency, what would happen if we used a 0 % setting? The units would
(attempt to) respond over their full range of output for any frequency change. This would
result in continually over correcting the frequency and would cause severe oscillations in
the units and on the system. In this case, the governors would be attempting to 60 Hz (if
they were at 60 Hz initially). This characteristic can be useful when picking up load in an
isolated area on one or two units, but disastrous on an interconnected system.

Before leaving this discussion on governors, let’s consider another setting that is important to
governor operation, that of the “deadband.” This is area either side of the governor’s neutral
position within which no governor response occurs. NERC Operating Policy I.C, Guide 3
recommends a deadband not to exceed ± 0.036 Hz. That is, the governor should fully respond
to frequency deviations greater than ± 0.036 Hz. The deadband is important. If the governor
responded to every slight frequency deviation, it would be counterproductive. For example, we
sometimes deliberately offset the frequency schedule by ± 0.02 Hz to correct time error, and we
certainly don’t want the governors to fight that correction. If the governor deadband is too
great, we will get no response to frequency deviations of a magnitude we would like to arrest.
A deadband in the range of ± 0.03 to 0.036 Hz ensures the governors do not fight manual time
error corrections, but still respond adequately to larger frequency deviations.

SUPPLEMENTAL CONTROL

If all generating unit governors are set to 5 % droop and pick up load on frequency deviation in
proportion to their size, how do we ensure that systems with larger generators are not supplying
the loads of systems with smaller generators? And, if governors are not correcting back to 60
Hz, how do we manage to stay near 60 Hz nearly all the time? The answer to both these
questions is the same. A system of supplemental control, known as Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) provides the control needed to maintain frequency near 60 Hz and ensure the
proper division of load. Computer generated AGC signals change generator output by

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activating the speed changer motor, which in turn changes the control valve position. The
percent droop is not changed, but the droop curve is moved up or down in small increments
until it intercepts the desired load at scheduled frequency. As long as power systems were
isolated, frequency control alone was adequate. When systems started to interconnect to
improve reliability and economy, something else was needed.

CONTROL AREAS

Before we go any further, we need to understand the concept of “control area”. The NERC
definition of control area is: “A system which regulates its generation in order to maintain its
interchange schedule with other systems and contributes its frequency bias obligation to the
Interconnection.” The boundary of a control area is established by its interconnections (tie
points) with other systems.
Each control area is responsible for ensuring that its resources equal its net load requirements
(including consideration of its net imports and exports). It is also responsible for contributing to
the recovery of frequency deviations, no matter where on the system the cause of the deviation
is located.

Now that we know what a control area is, what do we need to do to keep it under control?
Typically, the control system consists of a computer system, communications links, meters, and
automatic controls on generating units. The meters provide, through telecommunications,
values of tie line power flows, generator output, and frequency.

AREA CONTROL ERROR (ACE)

The AGC system monitors, at a minimum, power system frequency, generator output, net
interchange schedule, and tie line power flows. It compares the actual frequency and tie line
values to the desired or scheduled values and generates an error value called the Area Control
Error (ACE).
Area Control Error is a measure of the difference between actual and desired conditions of
frequency and actual interchange. When ACE is other than zero, the AGC system sends the
appropriate control signals to those generating units on automatic control to cause ACE to
return to zero. If ACE is negative, indicating insufficient generation, AGC sends raise pulses to
the units to increase generation. Increasing generation reduces the power flowing into the
system or increases the power flowing out of the system, as appropriate, to reduce the error
created by the difference between actual and scheduled power flow. If ACE is positive,
indicating too much generation, the appropriate response is to reduce generation. If either
frequency or actual interchange is different from the scheduled values, ACE will be other than
zero. It is not necessary for the AGC system to know the total load demand in the control area.
The demand is being satisfied by the generation on line and power flowing on the tie lines. As
long as it can control generating units to return ACE to zero, AGC is satisfied.
Depending upon conditions, ACE may be calculated in several different ways, called control
modes. Dispatchers must know the appropriate mode to use in all conditions. The three basic
modes are discussed in the following section.

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CONTROL MODES

The three basic control modes are based upon the method of calculating Area Control Error
(ACE). ACE is a measure of the difference between actual and desired values for the items
considered in that mode. The mathematical sign convention is that a negative ACE indicates a
generation deficiency (undergeneration) and a positive ACE indicates an excess of generation
(overgeneration). An ACE of zero, of course, indicates that generation is equal to the
generation requirement.
The first of these control modes is termed “Flat Tie Line” (or constant net interchange). The
only control consideration is the amount of power flowing over interconnections with
neighboring control areas. The dispatcher tells the computer how much power should be
imported from or exported to each neighboring system. These amounts are termed “schedules.”
The computer calculates the net schedule and compares it with the net actual power flow it is
reading on the tie lines via telemetry.
Any difference between the two values results in a non-zero ACE. The computer sends raise or
lower control pulses, as appropriate, to generators on control until ACE returns to zero. The
ACE calculation for Flat Tie Line mode is as follows:

ACE = (NI a – NIs)

Where

NIa = Actual Net Interchange (net tie flow)

NIs = Scheduled Net Interchange

For example, if NIa = 200 MW and NIs = 220 MW, then:

ACE = (200 - 220) = -20 MW (20 MW low on generation)

If we look only at tie flows, what will happen to frequency? Remember, unit governors care
only about being on the droop curve - not being at 60 hz. If we are operating in Flat Tie Line
mode, frequency deviations could become quite large. As load is added, the governors respond
only to arrest the frequency decline, so successively adding load or losing generation results in
an everdeclining frequency. Losing load or adding generation could result in ever-increasing
frequency.
Flat Tie Line mode of operation should be used only for short periods of time when a system
frequency source is unavailable. What is needed, then, is some way to influence ACE with
frequency deviations. First, we need to determine how much we want frequency to influence
the calculation. We do that by determining the “natural” frequency response (the frequency
response characteristic) of the system, i.e., without any AGC, how does the system respond to a
frequency disturbance? We determine that by looking at the control area’s response to a
number of incidents of generation loss outside the control area. The sum of the net changes in
tie flows for each incident gives us an indication of the system’s natural response. This
response comes about from the loss of load as frequency declines and from the
response of generating units to the frequency deviation. We then scale that value to arrive at a
value in MW per tenth (0.1) Hz. Because the response can vary, depending upon conditions, we

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will use the average of the responses to many different events. This final number is called the
control area’s Frequency Bias Setting. It provides a way to convert frequency deviation into
MW for a consistent method of indicating ACE, and is used to bias the control area’s ACE
calculation, so that a larger frequency deviation will provide a greater response from that
control area.

If we operate with frequency as the only control consideration, we are operating in “Flat
Frequency”mode. In this mode, ACE is calculated as:

ACE = -10 B f (Fa – Fs)

Where

B f = Control area frequency bias setting

Fa = Actual frequency
Fs = Scheduled (desired) frequency

For example, if B f is -75 MW/0.1 Hz, Fa is 60.02 Hz and Fs is 60 Hz, then:

ACE = -10(-75)(60.02 - 60) = (750)(.02) = 15 MW (overgenerating by 15 MW)

The ACE resulting from a frequency deviation is called the frequency bias obligation.

When we are operating in Flat Freque ncy mode, there is no control of tie line flows.
Differences in rates of response (as in hydro versus thermal systems) to frequency deviations
and differences in frequency bias obligations (small systems compared to large systems) will
result in power flow between control areas, possibly leading to overloading and tripping tie
lines. This mode of control should be used only when the control area is isolated from all other
control areas (islanded). Both these components (frequency control and tie line control) are
necessary for proper operation while connected to other control areas. When ACE is taking into
account both frequency and tie line errors, we are operating in “Tie Line Bias” mode (constant
net interchange with frequency bias). In this mode, ACE is calculated as follows:

ACE = (NI a - NIs) -10 B f(Fa – Fs)

Using the values from the previous calculations:

ACE = (200 - 220) -10(-75)(60.02 - 60) = -20 + 15 = -5 MW

To give you a feel for the different frequency bias settings of the various control areas, the list
later in this section shows the latest bias settings for WECC control areas. Control areas update
these values and submit them to NERC and WECC in January of each year.

IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE FREQUENCY BIAS SETTINGS

In an ideal world, where each control area’s frequency bias setting matches its frequency
response characteristic, no control action other than governor response would be taken by other

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systems when one system loses generation. Each control area contributes power to the deficient
control area as dictated by its “frequency response characteristic” (FRC). The increased power
flow out on its interconnections matches its frequency bias obligation so no further control
action need be taken. Then, as the deficient area increases generation to restore the balance,
frequency increases and unit governors reduce input to the prime mover. By the time frequency
reaches 60 Hz, all units outside the deficient system have returned to their original power
levels. Of course, we don’t live in an idea l world. The frequency bias rarely matches the FRC,
so control action will be taken by nearly all systems.
For example, suppose your FRC at a given time is greater than your frequency bias setting. A
large generator trips elsewhere in the interconnection. Your system responds by losing a small
amount of load as frequency decreases and your unit governors respond to increase power
output. The excess power flows out of your system to the deficient system. Let’s suppose the
frequency decrease is 0.1 Hz and your system responds with 100 MW of power flow out. Your
frequency bias setting, however, is only 75 MW/0.1 Hz. The frequency deviation says you
should be producing 75 MW more to help correct the frequency, but your system responded
with 100 MW. This is 25 MW too much, giving you a +25 MW ACE. Your AGC will begin
sending lower signals to your generators. This action opposes system frequency stabilization.
Because of this possibility, some systems have implemented a variable frequency bias setting.
Based on detailed studies of the system in various conditions of load and generation on line,
they have approximated their actual frequency response characteristic in those various
conditions and programmed the model into their AGC computer. The variable bias tends to
allow their systems to sustain a high initial response to frequency deviations until the frequency
has returned to normal.

TIME ERROR AND TIME ERROR CONTROL

Power system frequency is the best indication of the balance between generation and load at
any given time. We could maintain a running average of the frequency values over time in
order to judge the load/generation balance on a longer term basis. It is simpler and easier,
however, to track the system time error as a long-term indicator of the load/generation balance
throughout the Interconnection.
If time error is increasing in the
slow direction, generation is less
than needed and frequency is
running low.

Time error is the difference

between a time standard and
system time and results from
sustained
frequency deviations. It is
usually measured in hundredths
of a second.
System time derives from an
electric clock run at power
system frequency, so that it ticks
off one second every 60 cycles.
If frequency is less than 60 Hz,
the clock ticks slower (more

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time elapses before 60 cycles have occurred). Slow syste m time accrues when system
frequency is low, and fast time accumulates when system frequency is high.
Standard time is derived from a highly accurate time standard maintained by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Boulder, Colorado. A continuous time signal
is broadcast by NIST and picked up by the time standard in the utility’s control center. By
comparing system time to the time signal, the time standard computes system time error.
Time error accumulates as long as a frequency deviation persists and accumulates faster for a
greater frequency deviation. Time error, therefore, is proportional to the duration and
magnitude of the frequency deviation. When the frequency deviation returns to zero, time error
stops changing and remains at the same value until frequency deviates again. Figure 8
illustrates how time error accumulates while frequency is below 60 Hz, stabilizes when
frequency returns to 60, then is corrected when frequency goes above 60 Hz.
The only way to correct time error is to cause frequency to deviate in the opposite direction, so
that the product of deviation and duration equals the product of the deviation and duration that
caused the time error in the first place. If the time error is slow, then the frequency must be
increased above 60 Hz in order to bring the time error back to zero. Time error correction may
be accomplished by intentionally changing the scheduled system frequency with all control
areas participating in the manual correction. Nonparticipating control areas will caused
significant inadvertent interchange to accumulate during the period of correction.

In a manual time error correction, the scheduled frequency is offset by ±0.02 Hz in all of the
controllers in the interconnected system. The frequency set point is 59.98 Hz for correcting a
fast time error or 60.02 Hz for correcting a slow time error.
When the frequency schedule is changed, each system’s ACE deviates from zero by an amount
determined by the system’s Bf and the 0.02 Hz deviation. AGC sends raise or lower pulses to
the generators and the total system energy is increased or decreased to adjust the frequency. All
control areas should participate in this correction. Control areas that do not participate are
both fighting the time error correctio n and accumulating inadvertent interchange in the process.
If all areas participate, inadvertent interchange will not flow — at least not due to the frequency
change.

The time error (TE) change due to frequency error is calculated as:

TE = 60 (f - 60) t

Where

f is the average frequency for the period and t is the period in hours.
Manual time error corrections, with frequency offset by ±0.02 Hz, should correct time error at
the rate of 1.2 seconds per hour, provided all control areas participate. As shown by the
equation above

(TE = 60 (60.02 - 60) 1 = 1.2 sec.)

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AUTOMATIC TIME ERROR CORRECTION

The WECC area has used Automatic Time Error Correction (ATEC) for over 30 years.
Initially, only a few control areas participated, with the number growing through the years. It is
now mandatory for all control areas in WECC to use ATEC.

Interconnected systems behave very differently with and without automatic time error control.
Without automatic time error control the time error continues to build up as long as the system
control error persists, or until a manual time error correction is started. In the Eastern
Interconnection, without automatic time error control, manual time error corrections may be
required on a daily basis. To reduce the number of manual corrections, the Eastern
Interconnection has increased its time error tolerances. Since slow time error accumulates
during rapid load pickup hours and fast time error during rapid load decrease hours, the
Interconnection allows up to eight seconds of time error to accumulate before implementing a
manual correction. Dispatchers in the Western Systems must be alert to a persistent time error
because it means that there is a persistent control error at some point in the system.

In February of 2003 the WECC Automatic Time Error correction method changed. (The former
method had already been suspended for three years due to conflicts with CPS1 and 2.). The
former method had been effective in minimizing the need for manual Time Error corrections
but failed to recognize the root causes of the problem, and therefore lacked a mechanism for
assigning automatic accountability per control area.

Until 1989, the ACE equation with time error control was:

ACE = (NIa – NIs ) - 10Bf (fa – fs ) - (B ttd)

Where

td is the system time error in seconds and

B t is some fraction of B f.

The early value of Bt was 20% of Bf. In those years, systems with ATEC kept it in service at all
times, except during manual time corrections. A control area with a frequency bias of 100
MW/0.01 Hz would have a time error bias of 20 MW per second. After several years of
experience, the time error bias was reduced to 10% of the frequency bias. Experience showed
that ATEC was very effective in reducing the need for time error corrections, but those systems
participating in ATEC were accumulating very large inadvertent interchange balances. The
0.1B f time error bias was used until a new ATEC procedure was implemented in January 1989.
The 1989 procedure required control areas to participate in time error correction only when
doing so would reduce the control area’s accumulated inadvertent. The intent was to reduce the
amount of inadvertent accumulated while attempting to correct time. It was accomplished by
adding a new term to the ACE equation, as follows:

ACE = (NIa – NIs ) - 10Bf (fa – fs ) - s(Bttd)

The new term, s, is a “switch” that turns ATEC on when it is set to 1 , or off when it is set to 0.

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The switch is on if time error is slow and accumulated inadvertent is negative or if time error is
fast and accumulated inadvertent is positive. If time error and inadvertent are in opposite
directions, s is set to 0, causing the term s(B ttd) to be zero. Time error bias is currently 30% of
the frequency bias setting. Automatic time error correction is always in service (except,
possibly, during restoration after a disturbance).

INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE

When, for any reason, the generation and load in a control area are not completely in balance,
inadvertent interchange is exchanged with other control areas in the Interconnection. The cause
of the imbalance may not be the fault of a given control area, but may be caused by the actions
of another control area. Any time the actual and scheduled interchange do not match, there is a
nonzero interchange deviation. Over an hour-long period, interchange deviations may occur in
both directions (positive and negative), but at the end of the hour, the algebraic sum of all the
deviations becomes the inadvertent interchange for the hour.

Inadvertent interchange balances are accumulated by each control area as a running total in
both on- and off-peak periods. Inadvertent payback must occur in those same periods to reduce
the balance.

There are many causes for inadvertent interchange, most of which cannot always be avoided.
The key is to monitor accumulations and take action to reduce accumulations to the extent
possible. This can be done both by reducing the amount accumulated during an hour by
practicing good control and by taking advantage of opportunities to reduce the inadvertent
balance, either by trading with another control area or by practicing unilateral inadvertent
payback according to accepted Interconnection practices.

Inadvertent interchange is the difference between the scheduled energy and the actual amount
of energy delivered or received (calculated as: Net Actual Interchange minus Net Scheduled
Interchange). Megawatt hour readings at control area interconnections are taken each hour to
determine the actual energy interchanged. During the end-of-hour accounting, the energy
scheduled for the hour is subtracted from the metered energy. The result is the hourly
inadvertent interchange.
Between radial control areas, billing could be based upon actual tie line flows, since metering
would account for all the energy interchanged. In a network, however, where power flows on
all available paths, it is not feasible to base the billing on metered flows between any two
control areas. By common practice, billing is based upon the assumption that energy scheduled
was delivered and received. If a given control area receive s more net energy than it has
scheduled (or if the supplying party provided less than scheduled) there is no practicable way to
determine who supplied the excess energy. Therefore, the inadvertent interchange balance is an
account with the Interconnection.
At times during the hour, a control area can have a net tie-line deviation. That is, the actual net
interchange at the moment is different from the scheduled interchange. The time average
(integral) of the tie-line deviation over the hour becomes the inadvertent interchange for the
hour. An average 100 MW tie-line deviation for one hour becomes 100 MWH of inadvertent
interchange. If the 100 MW tie -line deviation lasts for 30 minutes during the hour, the
inadvertent interchange will be 50 MWH.

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Tie -line deviation is a result of two things: (1) A control error in the control area, and (2)
frequency and time/inadvertent bias power in all control areas. However, the control error and
bias power are not independent. Bias power from all of the control areas makes up for the
control error. The frequency bias power from each control area is proportional to the total
frequency bias for each area. So the tie -line deviation and resulting inadvertent interchange are
proportional to and divided according to the frequency bias for each control area. The
inadvertent interchange for the control area with the error is the megawatt error less the bias
power within the area itself.
Unilateral control errors draw all control areas into tie line deviations and inadvertent
interchange in proportion to their bias value. A bilateral error, an error between two areas, can
also happen and the results are very different. Suppose neither involved area has the correct
schedule on its AGC control, but both have equal and offsetting schedule errors. At the end-of-
hour energy accounting, both areas will find an inadvertent interchange between them. Other
interconnected systems will be unaffected.
The more common situation, however, is for only one control area to be in error. This results in
a frequency deviation, time error accumulation, and inadvertent interchange for all control
areas in the Interconnection.
Common tie -line control metering should be used by two connected areas. An error in common
control metering may contribute to a bilateral error between the two control areas. The bilateral
control error causes inadvertent interchange only between the two areas that are parties to the
error.
Other areas may be affected by frequency deviations (if any) caused by the error, and
inadvertent interchange will flow through other areas.

INADVERTENT CAUSES

Inadvertent interchange may be caused by a number of factors, namely:

· AGC lag — AGC reacts to an error that has already occurred. ACE deviates fr om zero and
the system responds to bring ACE back to zero. ACE deviates again and the system responds
again. During any given hour, many of these deviations will cancel each other, being in
opposite directions and of similar magnitude. They rarely cancel each other completely,
however, and no matter how good the control system, some inadvertent usually accumulates.

· Poor control — When added to inherent AGC lag, particularly after loss of a generator or
system load, poor control results in large inadverte nt accumulations.

· Data errors — Even though both control areas are reading a common point, there may be
differences in converting the data in the respective control systems. There may also be
differences between the control value used and the energy recorded on the KWH meter register.

· Scheduling errors — Failure of one or both parties to a transaction to properly enter the
schedule value into the AGC computer results in inadvertent accumulation.

· Bias contributions — Frequency and time error bias result in inadvertent accumulations
when frequency or time error deviations occur. This is “secondary” inadvertent (caused by
outside influences) as opposed to “primary” inadvertent (caused by an error in the control area).

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· Ramp skew — When the net schedule changes, the change is ramped in over a 20 minute
period (or other agreed upon duration). The ramp typically begins before the hour and ends
after the hour. As the schedule ramps in, the AGC system responds to cause a change in tie line
flows. Accounting for the previous hour is based on tie line flows during that hour, which now
includes a small amount of flow due to the changing schedule. Accounting for schedules,
however, is based upon the period from the top of one hour to the top of the next hour.
Inadvertent accumulates at the rate of 4.2 MWH per 100 MW of schedule change (if a 20
minute ramp is used).

INADVERTENT ACCOUNTING

Proper inadvertent accounting is important for two major reasons. First, generating energy costs
money. While a system with negative inadvertent has saved some money, a system with
positive inadvertent has incurred a cost it would like to recover. Second, errors in inadvertent
accounting can lead to undesired control action (or lack of desired control action) due to
automatic time error correction. They can also lead to erroneous bilateral inadvertent exchanges
when the dispatcher is mislead by an erroneous balance.
There is a principle that can assist in detecting and correcting accounting errors if it is properly
used. The principle may be stated; “The individual control area inadvertents in the
Interconnection for any time period will sum to zero.” If proper accounting procedures are
followed diligently, this principle will always hold true. The most important procedure is that
of reaching agreement between the control area and its neighbor about the magnitude and
direction of the scheduled and actual flows. If both control areas agree upon these values and
use them, there is little possibility for error.

INADVERTENT PAYBACK

Energy costs vary widely over the day or week due to the difference in customer demand
between high load and low load periods. To ensure that control areas do not use this cost
disparity to take inadvertent from the Interconnection when cost is high and pay it back when
cost is low, the inadvertent account is kept in two separate balances. Inadvertent incurred
during on-peak hours must be returned in like hours, as must inadvertent accrued during off-
peak hours. The following list shows the agreed upon on- and off-peak periods in WECC.

The NERC Policies provide clear guidelines for inadvertent payback. Note that it provides two
acceptable methods for paying back inadvertent. Method 1 describe s “bilateral” payback
(exchanging inadvertent with another control area), and Method 2 describes “unilateral”
payback (deliberately incurring inadvertent with the Interconnection in the opposite direction
from the accumulation). Note also that the policies forbid the use of Method 2 in
Interconnections practicing automatic time error correction (WECC). When properly
implemented, automatic time error correction accomplishes Method 2 automatically, i.e.,
unilaterally corrects inadvertent only when it also corrects time error.

15
INADVERTENT CORRECTION

1. Automatic

—Correction is part of AGC in WECC.

—Corrects inadvertent only when inadvertent and time error have the same sign.

2. Bilateral inadvertent trade

—Exchange with another system having an accumulation with the opposite sign.
—Must keep on-peak and off-peak hour accumulations and exchanges separate.
—Amount of trade must be agreed on by all involved systems.

USING AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

Now that we have a good understanding of the basics of AGC operation, including time error
and inadvertent interchange, we will look at some other aspects of using AGC. We begin with a
review of the complete ACE equation as used in WECC.

ALLOCATION OF GENERATION CHANGES

After determining the ACE, the AGC system allocates the desired changes to the generators on
control. This allocation is performed by an “economic dispatch” (ED) program. Input to ED
consists of ACE, unit incremental heat rates, fuel costs, transmission losses, and the amount of
power being generated by units on control. The final output is control signals to the units on
control through the AGC interface located at the power plants.

Any factor in the ACE equation changes the system balance. The AGC system restores the
balance by automatically sending signals to units on control to return ACE to zero. ACE is
calculated in the same manner by all utilities, but allocation methods vary according to the
characteristics of the Member Systems.

Direct inputs to the allocation logic of an AGC system are (1) area control error and (2) actual
generator output. Other inputs include the parameters required for allocation of AGC
generation changes. WECC members vary in the requirements and the parameters established
for the allocation of the AGC signals sent to the generating units on control. Parameters used in
hydro systems include consideration of stream flows, reservoir elevations and megawatt
production per cubic foot of water released. Parameters are also set for river and reservoir
elevation strategy, for constraints and for optimizing generation and water releases.

For thermal generation systems the parameters include consideration of generator efficiencies,
fuel costs, system losses and environmental restrictions (including NOX control). Parameters are

16
also set for incremental generation costs, savings and environmental considerations. Parameters
for thermal allocation are often updated every five minutes or less. Hydro system parameters
are typically updated less frequently than thermal system parameters.

The area control error is allocated according to response ratios. The signal to adjust generators
on AGC control may be termed station (or unit) control error. The station control error or unit
control error is the term used to indicate the signal to individual generators on control to raise
or lower in response to the area control error (ACE). The area control error will not be zero
unless the sum of the station control errors is zero. If generator “A” satisfies the AGC request
for a raise or lower, but generator “B” does not satisfy that request for some time, the area
control error will not be zeroed.

Limitations in the amount and rate of change capabilities for generator loading are a very
common cause for the area control error not being zeroed at any given moment.

ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Economic dispatch is a term referring to the assignment of priorities to Automatic Generation

Control (AGC) control signals:

(1) to satisfy the system load and tie line control requirements and
(2) to operate units at the lowest cost consistent with (1).

Power can be generated for the lowest cost when all generating units are operating at the same
incremental cost. In other words, the cost of a small increase in generator output would be
identical for all generators on the system. As power is increased on hydro, combustion turbine
and steam generating units, various efficiency rates and fuel costs are encountered. Economic
dispatch becomes very complex for most systems. Moder n AGC computer systems are capable
of monitoring numerous input values to determine which generators should receive the control
signals.

Not all generating units on a system are necessarily placed on control. Some are loaded to the
most efficient level for given restrictions and conditions. Other units are placed on control to
provide regulating capability.

If the AGC program includes economic dispatch considerations, it must also monitor the
system incremental cost. Incremental cost is a term expressing the additional costs associated
with an increase in generation. It is calculated as the total cost increase divided by the increase
in generation.

Decremental value is a term expressing the savings realized in not producing a given amount of
power. Incremental and decremental costs vary as system operating conditions change. The
major objective of economic dispatch is to allocate the total generation required of the area to
alternative available generating sources in order to achieve the best area economy consistent
with safe and effective operation.

17
Systems with thermal generation utilize “incremental heat rate” as an expression of unit
efficiency. Incremental heat rate is expressed in British Thermal Units per kiloWatt-hour
(BTU/KWh).

When calculating incremental costs, or the increased costs to generate the next increment of
energy, the distance from the generator to the load center must be considered. For instance, if
two generating units with identical efficiencies were compared, when one is near the load
center and the other one is 300 miles away, the net incremental cost for the remote unit would
be considerably higher than for the local unit.

The Energy Management System (EMS) computer compares the incremental costs for the units
on AGC control with the system incremental cost. Commonly, the generator incrementals are
determined at the generating plant bus. Since the generating plant is often remote from the load
center, the generator incremental cost may be adjusted to allow for transmission losses.

1. What combination of units at what outputs would most economically provide 250 MW?
2. What combination of units at what outputs would most economically provide 305 MW?
3. Which is the highest cost unit?

Total production cost is minimized when the incremental cost of power delivery to the load
center is equal for all units. Transmission losses are calculated for a given loading and the
generating unit incremental cost is adjusted (penalized) to reflect transmission losses affecting
the cost of power delivered to the load center. The generator incremental cost is multiplied by
an adjustment (penalty) factor and compared competitively with the equivalent cost of other
generators with respect to the load center. When all incremental costs are equal, a minimum
generating cost is achieved.

18
An AGC raise or lower signal to turbine governors is based upon the fundamental parameters in
the control scheme (interchange deviation and frequency deviation), which make up Area
Control Error (ACE). The control signal is developed in the AGC and sent to the individual
generating units. The desired magnitude of generation from each unit is based upon the total
generation required, the capability of each unit, and the relative incremental costs (reflected to
the load center) of the units on automatic control.

The program monitors the actual generation magnitude, comparing it with the magnitude
desired. The number and/or duration of the raise or lower pulses is dependent upon system
requirements as shown by the deviation on the ACE meter. The greater the ACE deviation, the
longer the raise or lower pulse duration will be or the more often pulses will be sent. Emission
control factors may also be included in the economic dispatch programs and may override
incremental cost considerations.

The preceding diagram and curves show typical unit incremental cost curves. System
incremental cost curves are made up of the various unit heat rate or efficiency curves of all
units in the power system.

Using a typical system heat rate curve we can identify the incremental cost of producing the
next increment or the decremental cost after purchasing the same amount at a reduced cost.

19
OTHER AGC FUNCTIONS

INTERCHANGE NEGOTIATION PROGRAMS .

The inclusion of interchange negotiation programs serves to increase awareness of potential

savings. Such programs basically calculate the worth of power at interconnection points and
determine if purchases of power are feasible and calculates quotations for power sales. Further
calculations can be included, such as determination of feasibility in the purchase of power in
several blocks at differing prices.

HYDROTHERMAL PROGRAMS.

Hydrothermal coordination programs serve to allocate available hydroelectric and thermal

generating units in order to (1) meet daily system load requirements, (2) minimize fuel costs
and (3) meet scheduled water releases and storage requirements. Such programs may require
da ily manual input. Daily manual input normally includes data pursuant to which units are
considered available for that period, the projected load curve for the period and projected water
releases. The program calculates desired loadings on the hydro and thermal units to provide for
meeting water release requirements, system load projections and minimum fuel costs during the
pre-dispatch period.

The AGC economic dispatch controls on the basis of economic considerations as well as
system requirements. The hydrothermal programs serve to provide an economic and practical
solution to the base system generation schedules.

TRANSFER GENERATION.

Generation connected to and transferred by another utility falls into two classes: (1) generators
owned and operated by one utility and 2) generators owned, operated or participated in by more
than one utility.

Generation within a given control area owned by a foreign utility may be treated in some cases
like transfer load (borderline loads). That is, it may be scheduled as a transfer load in the cases
of very small generators such as cogenerating units. The disadvantage of this practice is the
uncertainty of actual generator output. Another method of control is to telemeter the
interchange power.

Utilities often participate jointly in the construction of large generating units and share the
power generated. The type and complexity of control depends on three factors: (1) use by some
or all of the participants of their share of generation for AGC, (2) sharing reserves for the loss
of generation and (3) sharing of inadvertent interchange that results from control of generation.
The term share refers to the amount of power being generated for a participating utility. The
term allocation is sometimes used but is not used in this case to avoid confusion with the
reference of allocation of AGC raise or lower requirements transmitted to generators on
control.

20
SOME DEFINITIONS YOU SHOULD KNOW BEFORE GOING FURTHER IN
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

1 - Generation Control and Performance

All generation shall be operated to achieve the highest practical degree of service
reliability. Appropriate remedial action will be taken promptly to eliminate any abnormal
conditions which jeopardize secure and reliable operation.

A. Operating Reserve

The reliable operation of the interconnected power system requires that adequate generating
capacity be available at all times to maintain scheduled frequency and avoid loss of firm
load following transmission or generation contingencies. This generating capacity is
necessary to:
− supply requirements for load variations.
− replace generating capacity and energy lost due to forced outages of generation or
transmission equipment.
− meet on-demand obligations.
− replace energy lost due to curtailment of interruptible imports.

Minimum operating reserve. Each control area shall maintain minimum operating reserve
which is the sum of the following:

(a) Regulating reserve. Sufficient spinning reserve, immediately responsive to automatic

generation control (AGC) to provide sufficient regulating margin to allow the control area
to meet NERC’s Control Performance Criteria.

(b) Contingency reserve. An amount of spinning and nonspinning reserve, sufficient to

meet the Disturbance Control Standard as defined in 1.E.2(a). This Contingency Reserve
shall be at least the greater of:

(1) The loss of generating capacity due to forced outages of generation or transmission
equipment that would result from the most severe single contingency (at least half of which
must be spinning reserve); or

(2) The sum of five percent of the load responsibility served by hydro generation and seven
percent of the load responsibility served by thermal generation (at least half of which must
be spinning reserve).
For generation-based reserves, only the amount of unloaded generating capacity that can be
loaded within ten minutes of notification can be considered as reserve.

(c) Additional reserve for interruptible imports. An amount of reserve, which can be
made effective within ten minutes following notification, equal to interruptible imports.

21
(d) Additional reserve for on-demand obligations. An amount of reserve, which can be
made effective within ten minutes following notification, equal to on-demand obligations to
other entities or control areas.

2. Acceptable types of nonspinning reserve. The nonspinning reserve obligations

identified in A.1.b, A.1.c, and A.1.d, if any, can be met by use of
the following:

(a) load which can be interrupted within 10 minutes of notification

(b) interruptible exports
(c) on-demand rights from other entities or control areas
(d) spinning reserve in excess of requirements in A.1.a and A.1.b
(e) off- line generation which qualifies as nonspinning reserve (see definition)

3. Knowledge of operating reserve. Operating reserves shall be calculated such that the
amount available which can be fully activated in the next ten minutes will be known at all
times.

4. Restoration of operating reserve. After the occurrence of any event necessitating the
use of operating reserve, that reserve shall be restored as promptly as practicable. The time
taken to restore reserves shall not exceed 60 minutes.

5. Analysis of islanding potential. Each entity or coordinated group of entities shall

analyze its potential for islanding in total or in part from interconnected resources at least
every three years and shall maintain appropriate additional operating reserve for such
contingencies or, if such is impractical, its load and generation shall be balanced by other
appropriate measures.

6. Sharing operating reserves. Under written agreement, the operating reserve

requirements of two or more control areas may be combined or shared, providing that such
combination, considered as a single control area, meets the obligations of paragraph A.1.
Similarly, arrangements may be made whereby one control area supplies a portion of
another’s operating reserve, provided that such capacity can be made available in such a
manner that both meet the requirements of paragraph A.1. A firm transmission path must be
available and reserved for the transmission of these operating reserves from the control area
supplying the reserves to the control area calling on them.

7. Operating reserve distribution. Prudent operating judgment shall be exercised in

distributing operating reserve, taking into account effective use of capacity in an
emergency, time required to be effective, transmission limitations, and local area
requirements. Spinning reserve should be distributed to maximize the effectiveness of
governor action.

8. Review of contingencies. To determine the amount of operating reserve required,

contingencies shall be frequently reviewed and the most severe contingency designated.

22
B. Automatic Generation Control

Each control area shall operate sufficient generating capacity under automatic control to
meet its obligation to continuously balance its generatio n and interchange schedules to its
load. It shall also provide its proper contribution to Interconnection frequency regulation.

1. Inclusion in control area. Each entity operating transmission, generation, or distribution

facilities shall either operate a control area or make arrangements to be included in a
control area operated by another entity. All generation, transmission, and load operating
within the Western Interconnection shall be included within the metered boundaries of a
WECC control area. Control areas are ultimately responsible for ensuring that the total
generation is properly matched to total load in the Interconnection.

2. AGC. Prudent operating judgment shall be exercised in distributing control among

generating units. AGC shall remain in operation as much of the time as possible. As
described in the WECC Guidelines for Suspending Automatic Generation Control in the
WECC Operating Committee Handbook, AGC suspension should be considered when
AGC equipment has failed or if system conditions could be worsened by AGC.

3. Familiarity with AGC equipment. Control center operating personnel must be

thoroughly familiar with AGC equipment and be trained to take necessary corrective action
when equipment fails or misoperates. If primary AGC has become inoperative, backup
AGC or manual control shall be used to adjust generation to maintain schedules.

4. Data scan rates for ACE. It is recommended that the periodicity of data acquisition for
and calculation of ACE should be no greater than four seconds.

C. Frequency Response and Bias

1. Frequency bias setting. The frequency bias shall be set as close as possible to the
control area’s natural frequency respo nse characteristic. In no case shall the annual
frequency bias or the monthly average frequency bias be set at a value of less than 1% of
the estimated control area annual peak load per 0.1 Hz change in frequency.

2. Governors. To provide an equitable and coordinated system response to load/generation

imbalances, governor droop shall be set at 5%. Governors shall not be operated with
excessive deadbands, and governors shall not be blocked unless required by regulatory
mandates.

3. Tie-line bias. Each control area shall operate its AGC on tie- line frequency bias mode,
unless such operation is adverse to system or Interconnection reliability.

D. Time Control

1. Time error. Control areas shall assist in maintaining frequency at or as near 60.0 Hz as
possible and shall cooperate in making any necessary time corrections per the WECC
Procedure for Time Error Control. The amount of continuous time error contribution is a

23
function of control area time error bias, inadvertent interchange accumulation, and the time
error.

2. Maintain standards for frequency offset. Control areas shall cooperate in maintaining
standards established by the NERC Operating Committee for frequency offset to make time
corrections manually.

3. Time error correction notice and commencement. Time error corrections shall start
and end on the hour or half hour, and notice shall be given at least twenty minutes before
the time error correction is to start or stop. Time error corrections shall be made at the same
rate by all control areas.

4. Calibration of time and frequency devices. Each control area shall at least annually
check and calibrate its time error and frequency devices against a common reference.

E. Control Performance

1. Continuous monitoring. Each control area shall monitor its control performance on a
continuous basis against two Standards: CPS1 and CPS2.

(a) Control performance standard (CPS1). Over a year, the average of the clock-minute
averages of a control area’s ACE divided by -10â (â is control area frequency bias) times
the corresponding clock- minute averages of Interconnection’s frequency error shall be less
than a specific limit. This limit, å, is a constant derived from a targeted frequency bound
reviewed and set as necessary by the NERC Performance Subcommittee.

(b) Control performance standard (CPS2). The average ACE for each of the six ten-
minute periods during the hour (i.e., for the ten- minute perio ds ending at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
and 60 minutes past the hour) must be within specific limits, referred to as L10 . See
NERC’s Performance Standard Training Document, Section B.1.1.2 for the methods for
calculating L10 .

(c) Control performance standard (CPS) compliance. Each control area shall achieve
CPS1 compliance of 100% and achieve CPS2 compliance of 90%.

2. Disturbance conditions. In addition to CPS1 and CPS2, the Disturbance Control

Standard shall be used by each control area or reserve sharing group to monitor control
performance during recovery from disturbance conditions (see the Performance Standard
Training Document, Section B.2):

(a) Disturbance Control Standard. Following the start of a disturbance, the ACE must
return either to zero or to its pre-disturbance level within the time specified in the
Disturbance Control Standard currently in effect in NERC Policy 1.

(b) Disturbance control standard compliance. Each control area or reserve sharing group
shall meet the Disturbance Control Standard (DCS) 100% of the time for reportable
disturbances.

24
(c) Reportable disturbance reporting threshold. Each control area or reserve sharing
group shall include events that cause its Area Control Error (ACE) to change by at least
35% of the maximum loss gene ration that would result from a single contingency.

(d) Average percent recovery. For each reportable disturbance, the control area(s) with a
MW loss or participating in the response, such as through operating reserve obligations or
through a reserve sharing group, shall calculate an Average Percent Recovery. A copy of
the control area’s calculations, ACE chart, and Net Tie Deviation from Schedule chart shall
be submitted to the NERC Regional Performance Subcommittee representative not later
than 10 calendar days after the reportable disturbance.

(e) Contingency reserve adjustment factor. The WECC Performance Work Group
(PWG) shall determine the Contingency Reserve Adjustment Factor for each control area
no later than April 20, July 20, September 20, and January 20 for the previous quarter. The
local PWG representatives shall allocate the factor among control areas that are members of
reserve sharing groups according to the allocation methods developed by the group.

(f) Operating reserve for control areas and reserve sharing groups. Minimum
Operating Reserve shall be increased by the Contingency Reserve Adjustment Factor. The
WECC Performance Work Group shall monitor the compliance of each control area and
reserve sharing group for carrying the minimum required operating reserve.

3. ACE values. The ACE used to determine compliance to the Control Performance
Standards shall reflect its actual value, and exclude short excursions due to transient
telemetering problems or other influences such as control algorithm action.

F. Inadvertent Interchange

1. Hourly verification. Each control area shall, through hourly schedule verification and
the use of reliable metering equipment, accurately account for inadvertent interchange.

2. Common metering. Each control area interconnection point shall be equipped with a
common kWh meter, with readings provided hourly at the control centers of both areas.

3. Including all interconnections. All interconnections shall be included in inadvertent

interchange accounting. Interchange served through jointly owned facilities and interchange
with borderline customers shall be properly taken into account.

25
 NORTHWEST POWER POOL
OPERATING MANUAL
MINIMUM OPERATING RELIABILITY CRITERIA

Control Areas

Each system shall either operate a control area or make arrangements to be included in a
control area operated by another system. All generation, transmission, and load operating as
part of the Western Interconnection shall be included within the metered boundaries of a
recognized WSCC control area. Control areas are ultimately responsible for ensuring that
the total generation is properly matched to total load in the Interconnection.

Control Equipment

Accurate and reliable automatic tie line bias control equipment shall be utilized by each
control area as a means of continuously balancing actual net interchange with scheduled net
interchange, plus or minus its frequency bias obligation.

Frequency Bias Setting

The selected frequency bias setting shall be set as close as possible to the control area’s
natural frequency response characteristic. In no case shall the annual frequency bias or the
monthly average frequency bias be set at a value of less than 1% of the estimated control
area annual peak load per 0.1 Hz change in frequency.

Interconnecting Ties

To achieve accurate control, each control area shall include all of its interconnecting ties
into its control scheme. Common interchange metering equipment at agreed upon terminals
shall be utilized by adjacent control areas.

(a) To assure that adjacent control areas use the same power flow data for interconnecting
lines, common transducers and telemetering transmitters located at the point of
interconnection should be utilized where practical.

(b) For security, adjacent utilities should, where practical, utilize independent
communications paths from each common metering point to the respective utilities’ control
centers. Also, the quantity used for control should be exchanged between control centers
for monitoring purposes and possible use as a backup.

Hourly Checks

Hourly control checks shall be made by each control area using tie line kWh meters to
determine regulating performance. Adjacent control areas shall use the same kWh value for
each common interchange point. Adjustments in control sethngs shall be made to
compensate for any equipment error until equipment malfunction can be corrected.

26
Utilization

Automatic generation control shall remain in operation as much of the time as

possible. Prudent operating judgment shall be exercised in distributing control
among generating units.

Training

Control center personnel must be thoroughly familiar with automatic generation control
equipment and be trained to take necessary corrective action when equipment fails or
misoperates. If primary AGC has become inoperative, back-up AGC or manual control
shall be used to adjust generation to maintain schedules.

Performance Checks

Unit governing and control systems, including participation of automatic generation

control, should be checked at intervals frequent enough to verify their intended
performance.

One common factor in all systems and control areas is the interconnected system frequency.
The maintenance of satisfactory frequency control results in minimizing time error
deviations, inadvertent flows and losses.

Frequency and Time Error Bias Obligation

Control areas will assist in maintaining frequency at or as near 60.0 Hz as possible and will
cooperate in making any necessary time corrections. Such operation will also minimize
large inadvertent interchange transfers and accumulations. The amount of continuous time
error contribution is a function of control area time error bias, inadvertent interchange
accumulation, and the time error. The control area time error bias in megawatts per second
of time error shall be equal to 30% of its frequency bias setting.

Manual Corrections for Time Error

Control areas shall cooperate in maintaining standards established by the NERC Operating
Committee for frequency offset to make time corrections manually.

Corrective Action

Control areas shall cooperate in taking corrective action to maintain electric time within the
time error standard of ±2 seconds. The designated Time Monitor will initiate and terminate
time error correction notices. For time corrections, controllers should be offset ±0.02 Hz.
Or, if the control frequency base setting cannot be offset, schedules should be offset by an
amount equal to the computed bias contribution during a 0.02 Hz frequency deviation (i.e.,
20% of the frequency bias setting).

27
Time Monitor

Southern California Edison is designated as the Time Monitor for the WSCC system. This
Monitor coordinates efforts to maintain electric time.

Calibrate Equipment

Frequency and Time Error devices shall be calibrated periodically to ensure accurate
operation.

Reconnecting an lslanded System

When a control area or areas containing time error devices have been separated from the
interconnected area, time errors should be reconciled by one of the following methods:

(a) Before connection, the separated area may institute a Time Error Correction Procedure
to correct its accumulated time error to coincide with the indicated time error of the Time
Monitor, or

(b) After interconnection, the time error devices of the previously separated area must be
reset to coincide with the indicated time error of the Time Monitor. A notification of
adjusted time error shall be passed through Time Notification Channels as soon as possible
after interconnection.

ACE CALCULATIONS

Flat Tie Line Mode

ACE = (NIa – NIs)

If NIa = 200 and NIs = 220,
then ACE = (200-220) = -20

Flat Frecuency Mode

ACE = -10 Bf (Fa – Fs)

If Bf = 75, Fa = 60.02, and Fs = 60,
then ACE = -10 (-75) (60.02 - 60) = 15
Tie Line Bias Mode

ACE = (NIa – NIs) - 10 Bf (Fa – Fs)

ACE = (200 - 220) - 10 (-75) (60.02 - 60)
ACE = -5

28
EXPANDED ACE CALCULATIONS

Time error correction

ACE = (NIa – NIs) - 10 Bf (Fa – Fs) - s (Bt td)

If Tie line bias ACE = -5, Bt = 30% of Bf (with Bf = -75, Bt = -22.5), td = -0.2, and
accumulated inadvertent is negative (e.g. -325), then s = 1
ACE = -5 - 1 (-22.5)(-0.2), or ACE = -9.5

Bilateral inadvertent trade

ACE = Time error correction ACE - Tob

If Time error correction ACE = -9.5 and Tob = 5, then ACE with bilateral inadvertent trade
is -9.5 - 5, or ACE = -14.5

Equipment error correction

Equipment error correction ACE = ACE + C

If ACE = -14.5 and C = 10, then ACE with equipment error correction = -14.5 + 10, or
ACE = -4.5

BEHAVIOR OF SEPARATED CONTROL AREAS

In extreme cases severe disturbances in interconnected systems cause tie -lines to open. Some
control areas or groups of control areas are separated from each other. Some may be islanded.
These cases can be chaotic. AGC systems may not seem to operate correctly and even may
appear to add to the chaos. AGC systems may operate correctly, depending upon the conditions
existing.
To understand the behavior of control areas that are islanded or separated, remember that the
total system bias is only that of the areas remaining together. The total system frequency
response characteristic sud denly becomes quite small.
The most important thing to remember is that the interchange schedules do not work across
open tie -lines. The schedules suddenly become unmatched. Systems completely separated from
each other will be unbalanced by the amount of power scheduled across the separation until the
schedule is revised or the tie -line is closed. The unbalance can be calculated for each of the
separated systems by using the total system equations for each of the separated systems.
However, a good understanding of the basic relationships is encouraged so some idea about
system behavior can be estimated without the use of full calculations.

29
GUIDELINES FOR SUSPENDING AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

NERC recommends that Automatic Generation Control (AGC) be kept in service as much as
possible. However, power system conditions may occur which necessitate suspension of AGC
for reliability purposes. These guidelines are general in nature and cover those situations when
suspension of AGC should be considered. The Control Work Group recognizes that each
control area has unique operating problems which may dictate when AGC is to be suspended.
The intent of this document is not to force Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC)
members to suspend AGC at specific times, but rather to provide guidelines to aid utilities in
deciding when temporary suspension might be advisable. AGC is considered suspended when
dynamic control signals are prevented from bein g transmitted to controllable generating units.
The Area Control Error (ACE) may still be calculated and displayed.

This document assumes that AGC normally operates in the tie line bias plus time error bias
mode.

Action:

AGC suspension should be considered when any of the following circumstances exist:

1. System conditions which could be worsened by AGC.

a.) A System Frequency deviation greater than 0.04 Hz with a large ACE and opposing
system frequency.
Control areas opposing system frequency with an ACE greater than L10 would be suspended
while control areas aiding system frequency restoration would be allowed to continue AGC.
The control area with the disturbance would remain on AGC and be required to meet the NERC
DCS. AGC if suspended should be restored immediately after the system frequency disturbance
has cleared. Detection of a system operating condition defined in item 1.a. above should be
verified for a few AGC cycles before actually suspending control. This will help avoid false
suspension due to bad data.

b.) Absolute value of ACE exceeds a control area’s largest probable power or load loss
contingency.

An ACE larger than a control area’s largest probable power or load loss is minimally credible.
An ACE in this range is most likely to be caused by erroneous data. Suspending AGC under
this condition would prevent incorrect generation control. To address this condition the ACE
should occur over a few AGC cycles before suspension.

c.) Unplanned loss of a critical transmission facility which causes remaining transmission
facilities to overload.
Suspension of AGC is recommended here if continued AGC operation overloads existing
transmission facilities. Under some circumstances, current power schedules may no longer be
valid because dedicated paths are lost. They must be changed to alleviate overloading or avoid
system voltage problems.

d.) When AGC generators are electrically separated from the area where the ACE is
calculated.

30
Controlling a generation source that has been separated from its control area could
aggravate system conditions.

2. Data required for ACE calculation is erroneous or missing.

a.) System Frequency.

b.) Tie -line.

Erroneous data are data that have exceeded a predetermined limit. Missing data is data that is
unavailable due to known or unknown circumstances. Once erroneous or missing data is
identified, it should be estimated or a backup source should be used prior to restoring AGC.

3. AGC equipment failure.

Suspension of AGC is recommended for loss of any equipment that provides control input
data to AGC. AGC should be restored immediately once equipment has returned to normal,
been substituted for by estimated data, or replaced by backup equipment. Control Areas
should assure that AGC equipment is sufficiently backed up to avoid extended outage
periods.
During AGC suspension generating units should remain on governor control or local
setpoint control. AGC should be restored to service as soon as possible after the condition
which causes the suspension has been corrected or the appropriate mitigating action has
taken place. Such action may include bypassing or manually replacing data, using backup
equipment or placing backup control equipment in service.

INTERCHANGE SCHEDULING
Scheduling energy and capacity interchange transactions on a real time basis has become a
prime function for dispatchers of most WECC utilities. Basic scheduling criteria should be
followed to avoid confusion and to minimize inadvertent power flow.
Many utilities in WECC depend upon scheduled interchange to carry most of their loads.
Dispatchers must routinely monitor and check interchange schedules to maintain proper
records, regulate generation, and take advantage of economic opportunities. Scheduling
changes usually occur every hour because of load changes and incremental/decremental cost
changes. Energy scheduling is so important, because of the amount of money involved, that
some utilities have developed dispatcher job positions which only deal with interchange
schedules and transactions .
Typically two different groups within a utility do interchange scheduling.

Preschedule

The preschedule (usually arranged one or more days in advance) is usually handled by the
scheduling and accounting personnel who work regular daytime office hours. They project the
anticipated future day’s load curve and then preschedule energy which is economically feasible.

31
Real Time

The dispatchers handle “real time” scheduling to adjust the preschedule, offset deficiencies
because of unit forced outages, and to make economic transactions.
The interchange scheduling dispatcher must have a good understanding of economic dispatch
fundamentals, Automatic Generation Control (AGC) equipment, dynamically scheduled units,
transmission loss, and wheeling philosophy.

SIMULTANEOUS INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES

Thousands of interchange schedules are implemented every ho ur in WECC to move generation

to load areas. Many utilities depend mainly upon scheduled interchange to satisfy their load
requirements. The many schedules, moving enormous amounts of energy, stress the WECC
transmission system and require special attention to prevent overloads, instability, low voltage,
inadvertent flow, and other problems to neighboring utilities.
WECC transmission line operating agents monitor schedules and actual flows on transmission
paths and regulate schedules to prevent operating problems. In some WECC subregions,
schedules are implemented on a non-simultaneous basis without problems. However, in certain
subregions simultaneous import schedules must be monitored and controlled. Transmission line
operating agents use nomographs to determine safe schedules. For instance the California -
Southern Nevada area is a subregion that often has very high imports from the Pacific
Northwest and the Arizona-New Mexico area. Nomograms are developed for use in
determining maximum imports for reliable operation.
Nomograms accommodate various operating conditions, such as the number of Palo Verde
units on line, etc. The operating agent must select the correct nomogram for a given condition,
and regulate schedules to remain in the nomogram’s safe operating zone.
Other high import or export load areas in WECC also use nomograms to maintain safe and
reliable operations.

INTERCONNECTION BALANCE

The Interconnection balances when total generation equals total load (including losses) and
system frequency equals the desired frequency (usually 60 Hz.). In a balanced system, actual
net tie line power flow equals the net scheduled interchange in each area. To be in balance, all
of the power metered into each control area must be metered out of others; all of the power
scheduled out of each control area must be scheduled into others; and the Area Control Errors
(ACE) for all areas must be zero.
In actual practice, the system is seldom in perfect balance. Normal variations in load or
generation cause minor frequency fluctuations. Frequency returns to normal when the
imbalance is corrected.
A scheduling error or an erroneous tie line reading also contributes to frequency deviations. A
severe disturbance may cause one or more tie -lines to open. Some control areas or groups of
control areas may be separated from each other or may have some ties open and others closed.
Remember that interchange schedules do not work across open tie-lines, where there is no path
to follow from source to load. Systems completely separated from each other will be
unbalanced by the amount of power scheduled across the separation point. The schedule must
be revised until the interconnection is again in operation.
Always zero the schedules on an open tie to ensure correct AGC operation. If schedules are not

32
properly adjusted, the AGC may seem to be operating correctly, even though it is adding to the
chaos by trying to adjust to schedules on open lines. Closed ties may overload by picking up
the load that was on the open line(s).

SCHEDULING REMOTE GENERATION

An increasingly common situation is that of one party’s generation being located in another
party’s control area. To take advantage of economies of scale without the associated financial
risk, several utilities will jointly build and operate a generating project. Each owner’s share of
the project output is then scheduled from the control area containing the project to the control
area(s) containing the owner(s). A similar situation may arise when a non-utility generating
project (cogeneration, windmills, independent power producers, etc.) is located in one utility’s
system but selling to another utility.
There are several methods of performing the scheduling function in these situations. The
generation may simply be scheduled from the “host” control area to the owner’s control area
like any other transaction. Schedules are established hour to hour based on the owners’ requests
and the unit capability. Detailed after-the-fact accounting determines whether the scheduled
amount was actually delivered. During real- time operation, the host control area absorbs the
variations in unit output. If a major deviation occurs, such as loss of the unit, the schedule may
be reduced to zero immediately.
Another method involves “dynamic scheduling,” as illustrated in the following diagram. A
computer at the plant calculates each owner’s output share on a real time basis. That value
is communicated to the owner’s AGC computer, where it is treated as both a scheduled and
an actual delivery. At the end of each hour, the computer calculates the average of all the
communicated amounts, and that average value is treated as the schedule for that hour. If
the unit trips during the hour, the generation reduction is automatically communicated to
each receiving control area so they can make appropriate adjustments.

A refinement to dynamic scheduling allows the owners to use the generation in their own AGC
scheme. The AGC computer signals its requirements to the remote plant’s computer just as if it
were located within the control area. The plant computer, using all the received signals,
determines the actual output needed at the plant and controls to that value. The following
diagram indicates how the remote signal is provided for the local AGC equipment.

33
GENERATION CONTROL AND PERFORMANCE

Each CONTROL A REA shall have access to and/or operate resources to provide for a level of
O PERATING RESERVE sufficient to account for frequency support, errors in load forecasting,
generation loss, transmission unavailability, and regulating requirements. Sufficient OPERATING
RESERVES is defined as the capacity required to meet the Control Performance Standard
(Section A), Disturbance Control Standard (Section B), and Frequency Response Standard
(Section C) of this Policy.

The CONTROL A REA balance between demand and supply (generation plus INTERCHANGE) is
measured by its AREA CONTROL ERROR (ACE). Because supply and demand change
unpredictably, there will often be a mismatch between them, resulting in non-zero ACE.

The Control Performance Standard (CPS) establishes the statistical boundaries for ACE
magnitudes, ensuring that steady-state frequency is statistically bounded around its scheduled
value. Each CONTROL AREA must achieve at least the minimum performance required by the
CPS. CPS1 defines the permissible distribution of all CONTROL A REAS’ ACEs in an
INTERCONNECTION and is based on expected frequency performance within that individual
INTERCONNECTION . CPS2 limits the magnitude of the impact that a CONTROL A REA places on its
respective INTERCONNECTION . Values controlling the effects of CPS are set by the Resources
Subcommittee.

34
Monitoring. Each CONTROL AREA shall monitor its control performance against two Standards:
CPS1 and CPS2.

Control Performance Standard (CPS1). On a rolling 12-month basis, the average of the
clock-minute averages of a CONTROL AREA ’S ACE divided by 10B (B is the clock minute
average of the CONTROL A REA ’S frequency bias) times the corresponding clock minute
averages of the INTERCONNECTION’S FREQUENCY ERROR shall be less than a specific limit.

This limit ∈1 2 is a constant derived from a targeted frequency bound (separately calculated for
each INTERCONNECTION ) reviewed and set as necessary by the NERC Resources Subcommittee.

Control Performance Standard (CPS2). The average ACE for at least 90% of clockten-
minute periods (6 non-overlapping periods per hour) during a calendar month must be within a
specific limit, referred to as L10 . [See the “Performance Standard Training Document,” for
the methods for calculating L10.]

where:

? 10 is a constant derived from the targeted frequency bound. It is the targeted RMS of ten
minute average frequency error from schedule based on frequency performance over a
given year. The bound, 10 Î , is the same for every control area within an Interconnection.

Control Performance Standard (CPS) Compliance. Each CONTROL AREA shall achieve, as a
minimum, CPS1 compliance of 100% and CPS2 compliance of 90%.

C ONTROL A REAS Participating in S UPPLEMENTAL R EGULATION S ERVICE. A CONTROL A REA

providing or receiving SUPPLEMENTAL REGULATION SERVICE through DYNAMIC TRANSFER shall
continue to be evaluated on the characteristics of its own ACE with the SUPPLEMENTAL
REGULATION SERVICE included.

C ONTROL A REAS Providing OVERLAP R EGULATION SERVICE. A CONTROL AREA providing

O VERLAP REGULATION SERVICE shall evaluate CPS1 and CPS2 using the characteristics of the
combined CONTROL A REAS’ ACE and combined FREQUENCY BIAS SETTINGS.

35
C ONTROL A REAS Receiving OVERLAP R EGULATION S ERVICE. A CONTROL AREA receiving
OVERLAP REGULATION SERVICE shall not have its control performance evaluated (i.e. from a
control performance perspective, the CONTROL A REA has shifted all control requirements to the
CONTROL A REA providing overlap regulation).

DISTURBANCE CONTROL STANDARD

The CONTROL A REA demand-supply balance will quickly change following the sudden loss of
load or generation failure. This results in a sudden change in the CONTROL AREA’S ACE, and
also a change in INTERCONNECTION frequency. The Disturbance Control Standard measures the
CONTROL A REA ’S ability to utilize its CONTINGENCY RESERVES following a REPORTABLE
D ISTURBANCE. Because generator failures are far more common than significant losses of load
and because CONTINGENCY RESERVE activation does not typically apply to the loss of load, the
application of the Disturbance Control Standard is limited to the loss of supply and does not
apply to the loss of load.

Each CONTROL A REA shall have access to and/or operate resources to provide for a level of
CONTINGENCY RESERVE sufficient to meet the DCS performance standards.
RESERVE SHARING GROUPS shall have the same responsibilities and meet the same obligations
as individual CONTROL AREAS with regards to monitoring and meeting the Disturbance Control
Standard.

STANDARDS

1. CONTINGENCY R ESERVES . Each CONTROL AREA shall have access to and/or operate
CONTINGENCY RESERVES to respond to DISTURBANCES. This CONTINGENCY RESERVE is that part
of the OPERATING RESERVES that is available, following loss of resources by the CONTROL
A REA , to meet the Disturbance Control Standard (DCS). CONTINGENCY RESERVE may be
supplied from generation, controllable load resources, or coordinated adjustments to
INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES .

1.1 CONTINGENCY R ESERVE Accounting. The same portion of RESOURCE CAPACITY shall not
be counted by more than one entity (e.g. reserves from jointly owned generation) as part of its
CONTINGENCY RESERVES.

1.2 R EGIONAL C ONTINGENCY R ESERVE Policies. Each Region, subregion or RESERVE

SHARING GROUP shall specify its CONTINGENCY RESERVE policies, including the minimum
reserve requirement for the group, its allocation among members, the permissible mix of
O PERATING RESERVE – SPINNING and OPERATING RESERVE – SUPPLEMENTAL that may be
included in CONTINGENCY RESERVE, and the procedure for applying CONTINGENCY RESERVE in
practice, and the limitations, if any, upon the amount of interruptible load that may be included.

2. CONTINGENCY R ESERVE to meet Disturbance Control Standard. Each CONTROL A REA or

RESERVE SHARING GROUP shall activate sufficient CONTINGENCY RESERVE to comply with the
NERC Disturbance Control Standard. As a minimum the CONTROL A REA , or RESERVE
SHARING GROUP, shall carry at least enough CONTINGENCY RESERVES to cover the MOST
SEVERE SINGLE CONTINGENCY.

36
2.1. Contingency review. All RESERVE SHARING GROUPS and CONTROL AREAS shall at least
annually review their probable contingencies to determine their prospective MOST SEVERE
SINGLE CONTINGENCIES.

2.2. Disturbance Control Standard Compliance. When a CONTRO L AREA or RESERVE

SHARING GROUP experiences a REPORTABLE D ISTURBANCE (SEE 2.4), it is compliant with the
Disturbance Control Standard when the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY CRITERION is met within the
D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD. Each CONTROL AREA or RESERVE SHARING GROUP shall meet
the Disturbance Control Standard (DCS) 100% of the time for R EPORTABLE DISTURBANCES.

2.2.1. DISTURBANCE R ECOVERY CRITERION. The CONTROL A REA shall return its ACE to zero
if its ACE just prior to the DISTURBANCE was positive or equal to zero. For negative initial ACE
values just prior to the DISTURBANCE, the ACE must return to its pre-disturbance value. The
default performance criterion described above may be adjusted to better suit the needs of an
INTERCONNECTION based on analysis approved by the NERC Resources Subcommittee and the
NERC Operating Committee.

2.2.2. DISTURBANCE R ECOVERY PERIOD . The default DISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD is 15

minutes after the start of a REPORTABLE D ISTURBANCE. This period may be adjusted to better
suit the needs of an INTERCONNECTION based on analysis approved by the NERC Resources
Subcommittee and the NERC Operating Committee.

2.3. RESERVE SHARING GROUP. Each R ESERVE SHARING GROUP shall comply with the
Disturbance Control Standard. A RESERVE SHARING GROUP shall be considered in a
D ISTURBANCE condition whenever a group member has experienced a REPORTABLE
D ISTURBANCE and calls for the activation of CONTINGENCY RESERVES from one or more other
group members. (If a group member has experienced a REPORTABLE DISTURBANCE condition
but does not call for reserve activation from other members of the RESERVE SHARING GROUP,
then that member shall report as a single CONTROL A REA .) Compliance may be demonstrated
by either of the following two methods:

2.3.1. Group compliance to Disturbance Control Standard. The RESERVE SHARING GROUP
reviews group ACE (or equivalent) and demonstrates compliance to the DCS. To be in
compliance, the group ACE (or its equivalent) must meet the D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY
CRITERION after the schedule change(s) related to reserve sharing have been fully implemented,
and within the D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD .

2.3.2. Group member compliance to Disturbance Control Standard. The R ESERVE SHARING
GROUP reviews each member’s ACE in response to the activation of reserves. To be in
compliance, a member’s ACE (or its equivalent) must meet the D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY
CRITERION after the schedule change(s) related to reserve sharing have been fully implemented,
and within the D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD . [See Requirement 2.2.2 above.]

2.4. Reportable Disturbances. REPORTABLE D ISTURBANCES are contingencies that are greater
than or equal to 80% of the MOST SEVERE SINGLE CONTINGENCY loss. Regions may optionally
reduce the 80% threshold, provided that normal operating characteristics are not being
considered or misrepresented as contingencies. Normal operating characteristics are excluded
because DCS only measures the recovery from sudden, unanticipated losses of supply-side
resources.

37
2.5. Treatment of Multiple Contingencies.

2.5.1. Simultaneous Contingencies . Multiple contingencies occurring within one minute or

less of each other shall be treated as a single contingency. If the comb ined magnitude of the
multiple contingencies exceeds the MOST SEVERE SINGLE CONTINGENCY, the loss shall be
reported, but excluded from compliance evaluation.

2.5.2. Multiple Contingencies within the REPORTABLE D ISTURBANCE period. Additional

contingencies that occur after one minute of the start of a Reportable Disturbance but before the
end of the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD can be excluded from evaluation. The CONTROL
A REA or RESERVE SHARING GROUP shall determine the DCS compliance of the initial
REPORTABLE DISTURBANCE by performing a reasonable estimation of the response that would
have occurred had the second and subsequent contingencies not occurred.

2.5.3. Multiple Contingencies within the CONTINGENCY RESERVE RESTORATION P ERIOD.

Additional Reportable Disturbances that occur after the end of the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY
P ERIOD but before the end of the CONTINGENCY RESERVE R ESTORATION Period shall be reported
and included in the compliance evaluation. However, the CONTROL A REA or R ESERVE SHARING
GROUP can request a waiver from the Resources Subcommittee for the event if the contingency
reserves were rendered inadequate by prior contingencies and a good faith effort to replace
contingency reserve can be shown.

3. Restoration of Reserves. Each Control Area must fully restore its CONTINGENCY RESERVES
within the CONTINGENCY RESERVE RESTORATION PERIOD for its INTERCONNECTION.

3.1. Start of CONTINGENCY R ESERVE R ESTORATION PERIOD. The CONTINGENCY RESERVE

RESTORATION P ERIOD begins at the end of the D ISTURBANCE RECOVERY P ERIOD .

3.2. CONTINGENCY R ESERVE R ESTORATION PERIOD. The CONTROL AREA or RESERVE

SHARING GROUP shall restore its CONTINGENCY RESERVES within 90 minutes. This period may
be adjusted to better suit the reliability targets of the INTERCONNECTION based on analysis
approved by the NERC Resources Subcommittee.

4. Disturbance Control Performance Adjustment. Each CONTROL AREA or RESERVE

SHARING GROUP not meeting the Disturbance Control Standard during a given calendar quarter
shall increase its CONTINGENCY RESERVE obligation for the calendar quarter (offset by one
month) following the evaluation by the Region and/or the NERC Resources Subcommittee.
[e.g. For the first calendar quarter of the year, the penalty is applied for May, June, and July.]
The increase shall be directly proportional to the non-compliance with the Disturbance Control
Standard in the preceding quarter. This adjustment is not compounded across quarters, and is an
additional percentage of reserve needed beyond the MOST SEVERE SINGLE CONTINGENCY. A
RESERVE SHARING GROUP may choose an allocation method for increasing its CONTINGENCY
RESERVE for the RESERVE SHARING GROUP provided that this increase is fully allocated.

5. Reserve Policy Compliance Documentation. A representative from each C ONTROL A REA or

RESERVE SHARING GROUP that was non-compliant in the calendar quarter most recently
completed shall provide written documentation verifying that the CONTROL A REA or RESERVE
SHARING GROUP will apply the appropriate Disturbance Control Performance Adjustment

38
beginning the first day of the succeeding month, and will continue to apply it for three months.
The written documentation shall accompany the quarterly Disturbance Control Standard Report
when a CONTROL AREA or RESERVE SHARING GROUP is non-compliant.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND BIAS

REQUIREMENTS

1. Bias setting review. Each CONTROL A REA shall review its FREQUENCY BIAS SETTINGS by
January 1 of each year and recalculate its setting to reflect any change in area frequency
response characteristic.

1.1. Bias setting method. The FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING, and the method used to determine
the setting, may be changed whenever any of the factors used to determine the current bias
value change.

1.2. Bias setting reporting. Each CONTROL A REA shall report its FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING ,
and method for determining that setting, to the Performance Subcommittee.

1.3. Bias setting verification. Each CONTROL A REA must be able to demonstrate and verify to
the Performance Subcommittee that its FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING closely matches or is greater
than its system response.

STANDARDS

1. Tie -line bias. Each CONTROL AREA shall operate its AGC on tie -line frequency bias, unless
such operation is adverse to system or INTERCONNECTION reliability. The Standards for tie -line
bias control follow:

1.1. Bias setting to match frequency response. The CONTROL A REA shall set its frequency
bias (expressed in MW/0.1 Hz) as close as practical to the CONTROL AREA 's frequency
response characteristic. Frequency bias may be calculated several ways:

1.1.1. Fixed bias setting. A fixed

frequency bias value may be used which is
based on a fixed, straight-line function of
tie -line deviation versus frequency
deviation. The fixed value shall be
determined by observing and averaging the
frequency response characteristic for
several DISTURBANCES during on-peak
hours.

1.1.2. Variable bias setting. A variable

(linear or non-linear) bias value may be

39
used which is based on a variable function of tie -line deviation to frequency deviation. The
variable frequency bias value shall be determined by analyzing frequency response as it varies
with factors such as L OAD, generation, governor characteristics, and frequency.

1.1.3. Bias and jointly owned generation.

CONTROL A REA s that use DYNAMIC SCHEDULING or PSEUDO-TIES for jointly owned units must
reflect their respective share of the unit governor droop response into their respective
FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING. Fixed schedules for JOINTLY OWNED UNITS mandate that the
CONTROL A REA (A) that contains the JOINTLY OWNED U NIT must incorporate the respective
share of the unit governor droop response for any CONTROL AREA s that have fixed schedules (B
and C). The CONTROL AREAs that have a fixed schedule (B and C) but do not contain the
JOINTLY OWNED U NIT should not include their share of the governor droop response in
their FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING .

1.1.4. Minimum bias setting for CONTROL A REAS that serve native LOAD . The CONTROL
A REA ’S monthly average FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING must be at least 1% of the CONTROL A REA
’S estimated yearly peak demand per 0.1 Hz change as described in the Frequency Response
Characteristic Survey Training Document.

1.1.5. Minimum bias setting for CONTROL A REAS that do not serve native LOAD . The
CONTROL A REA ’S monthly average FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING must be at least 1% of its
estimated maximum generation level in the coming year per 0.1 Hz change as described in the
Frequency Response Characteristic Survey Training Document.

1.1.6. Bias and overlap regulation. A CONTROL A REA that is performing OVERLAP
REGULATION SERVICE will increase its FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING to match the frequency
response of the entire area being controlled. A CONTROL A REA that is performing
SUPPLEMENTAL REGULATION SERVICE shall not change its FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING .

GUIDES

1. Governor installation. Generating units with nameplate ratings of 10 MW or greater should

be equipped with governors operational for frequency response unless restric ted by regulatory
mandates

2. Governors free to respond. Turbine governors and HVDC controls, where applicable,
should be allowed to respond to system frequency deviation, unless there is a temporary
operating problem.

3. Governor droop. All turbine generators equipped with governors should be capable of
providing immediate and sustained response to abnormal frequency excursions. Governors
should provide a 5% droop characteristic. Governors should, as a minimum, be fully responsive
to frequency deviations exceeding ± 0.036 Hz (± 36 mHZ).

4. Governor limits. Turbine control systems that provide adjustable limits to governor valve
movement (valve position limit or equivalent) should not restrict travel more than necessary
to coordinate boiler and turbine response characteristics.

40
TIME CONTROL STANDARD

INTERCONNECTION frequency is normally scheduled at 60.00 Hz and controlled to that value.

The control is imperfect and over time the frequency will average slightly above or below
60.00 Hz resulting in electric clocks developing an error relative to true time. When the error
exceeds pre-set limits, corrective action is taken by adjusting the scheduled frequency, a
practice termed Time Error Correction. Each CONTROL AREA shall participate in
Interconnection Time Error Correction procedures unless it is operating asynchronously to its
INTERCONNECTION .

CONTROL AREAS operating asynchronously may establish their own time error control bands,
but must notify the NERC Resources Subcommittee of the bands being utilized, and also
provide notification if they are changed.

The Operating Reliability Subcommittee shall designate, on February 1st of each year, a
RELIABILITY COORDINATOR to act as the Interconnection Time Monitor to monitor time error
for each of the I NTERCONNECTIONS and to issue time error correction orders.

STANDARD

1. Time error correction notice and commencement. Time error corrections shall be
conducted in accordance with Appendix 1D, “Time Error Correction Procedure.”

2. Time Error Initiation. Time error corrections will start and end on the hour or half -hour,
and notice shall be given at least one hour before the time error correction is to start or stop. All
CONTROL AREAS within an INTERCONNECTION shall make all Time Error corrections directed by
the Interconnection Time Monitor for its INTERCONNECTION. All CONTROL A REAS within an
INTERCONNECTION shall make Time Error Corrections at the same rate.

REQUIREMENTS

1. Interconnection Time Monitor. Each Interconnection Time Monitor shall monitor time
error and shall initiate or terminate corrective action orders according to the procedure
specified.

2. Time Error Correction labeling. Time error correction notifications shall be labeled
alphabetically on a monthly basis (A-Z, AA-AZ, BA-BZ,…).

3. Time correction offset. The CONTROL A REA may participate in a Time Error Correction by
either of the following two methods:

1.1. Frequency offset. The Control Area may offset its frequency schedule by 0.02 Hz, leaving
the FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING normal, or

1.2. Schedule offset. If the frequency schedule cannot be offset, the CONTROL A REA may offset
its net INTERCHANGE schedule (MW) by an amount equal to the computed bias contribution
during a 0.02 Hz frequency deviation (i.e., 20% of the FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING).

41
4. Request for Termination or Halt of Scheduled Time Error Correction. Any RELIABILITY
COORDINATOR in an INTERCONNECTION may request the termination of a time error correction
in progress. Any RELIABILITY COORDINATOR may request the halt of a scheduled time error
correction that has not begun. C ONTROL AREAs that have reliability concerns with the execution
of a time error correction shall notify their RELIABILITY COORDINATOR and request the
termination of a time error correction in progress. To enable NERC to track the results of the
application of procedures relating to Time Control Standards, a RELIABILITY COORDINATOR
requesting a termination or halt of a Time Error Correction shall forward an explanation for
requesting the termination to the chairman of the Resources Subcommittee within 5 business
days.

5. INTERCONNECTION time error notification. The INTERCONNECTION Time Monitor shall on

the first day of each month issue a notification of time error, accurate to within 0.01 second, to
the other RELIABILITY COORDINATORS within the INTERCONNECTION to assure uniform
calibration of time standards.

5.1. Western INTERCONNECTION time error notification. Within the Western

INTERCONNECTION , the RELIABILITY COORDINATOR designated as the Interconnection Time
Monitor shall provide the accumulated time error (accurate to within 0.001 second) to all
CONTROL A REAS on a daily basis at 1400 PDT/PST using the WSCCNet. The alphabetic
designator shall accompany time error notification if a time error correction is in progress.

6. Time correction on reconnection. When one or more CONTROL A REA s have been separated
from the INTERCONNECTION , upon reconnection, they shall adjust the ir time error devices to
coincide with the time error of the INTERCONNECTION . A notification of the adjustment to time
error shall be passed through Time Notification Channels as soon as possible after
reconnection.

7. Leap seconds. CONTROL A REAS using time error devices that are not capable of
automatically adjusting for leap seconds shall arrange to receive advance notice of the leap
second and make the necessary manual adjustment in a manner that will not introduce an
improper I NTERCHANGE SCHEDULE into their control system.

AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL STANDARD

CONTROL A REAS utilize AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC) to automatically direct the
loading of REGULATING RESERVE. AGC is used to limit the magnitude of AREA CONTROL
ERROR (ACE) variations to the CPS bounds. This section contains Standards that apply to the
CONTROL A REA AGC needed to calculate ACE and to routinely deploy the REGULATING
RESERVE.

1. CONTROL A REA components. All load, generation, and transmission operating in an

INTERCONNECTION must be included within the metered boundaries of a C ONTROL A REA.

2. Resource Requirements

2.1. Regulating capability. Each CONTROL AREA shall maintain REGULATING RESERVES that
can be controlled by AGC to meet the Control Performance Standard (CPS).

42
2.2. Regulation Service.

2.2.1. Equipment Requirements. A CONTROL AREA providing REGULATION SERVICE shall

ensure that adequate metering, communications and control equipment is employed to prevent
such service from becoming a burden on the INTERCONNECTION or other CONTROL A REAS.

2.2.2. Failure Notification. A CONTROL A REA providing REGULATION SERVICE shall notify the
host CONTROL A REA for whom it is controlling if it is unable to provide the service, as well as
any INTERMEDIARY CONTROL AREAS.

2.2.3. Backup. A CONTROL A REA receiving REGULATION SERVICE shall ensure that backup
plans are in place to provide replacement R EGULATION SERVICE should the supplying CONTROL
A REA no longer be able to provide this service.

3. AUTOMATIC G ENERATION CONTROL (AGC).

3.1. AGC calculation. The CONTROL A REA ’S A UTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC) shall
compare total N ET A CTUAL INTERCHANGE to total N ET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE plus
frequency bias obligation to determine the CONTROL AREA ’S A REA CONTROL ERROR (ACE).
Single CONTROL AREAS operating asynchronously may employ alterna tive ACE calculations
such as (but not limited to) flat frequency control. If a CONTROL A REA is unable to calculate
ACE for more than 30 minutes it shall notify its RELIABILITY COORDINATOR.

3.2. AGC operation. CONTROL A REA AGC shall remain in operation unless such operation
adversely impacts the reliability of the INTERCONNECTION .

3.3. Manual control. If AGC has become inoperative, the CONTROL A REA shall use manual
control to adjust generation to maintain scheduled INTERCHANGE.

4. Data Requirements.

4.1. Data scan rates for ACE. The Control Area shall ensure that data-acquisition for and
calculation of ACE occur at least every six seconds.

4.2. Frequency. Each CONTROL AREA shall provide redundant and independent frequency
metering equipment that shall automatically activate upon detection of failure of the primary
source. This overall installation shall provide a minimum availability of 99.95%.

4.3. N ET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE.1

4.3.1. Inclusion of Schedules. The CONTROL A REA shall include all INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES
with ADJACENT CONTROL A REAS in the calculation of NET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE for the
A REA CONTROL ERROR (ACE) equation.

4.3.1.1. CONTROL A REAS with an HVDC link to another CONTROL A REA connected
asynchronously to their INTERCONNECTION may choose to omit the INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE
related to the HVDC link from the ACE equation if it is modeled as internal generation or load.

43
4.3.1.2. This standard may not apply to CONTROL A REAS operating asynchronously from their
INTERCONNECTION .

4.3.2. Dynamic Schedules. The CONTROL AREA shall include all Dynamic Schedules in the
calculation of NET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE for the ACE equation.

4.3.3. Interchange Ramps. SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE values used in ACE shall include the
effect of ramp rates, which are identical and agreed to between affected CONTROL A REA s. All
such calculations shall conform to specifications.

4.4. Actual Net Interchange.

4.4.1. Tie flows. All tie -line flows between ADJACENT CONTROL A REAS shall be included in
each CONTROL A REA ’s ACE calculation.

4.4.2. Tie -line metering. CONTROL A REA tie-line MW metering shall be telemetered to both
control centers, and shall emanate from a common, agreed-upon source us ing common primary
metering equipment. MWh data shall be telemetered or reported at the end of each hour.

4.4.3. Data filtering . The power flow and ACE signals that are utilized for calculation of
CONTROL A REA performance or that are transmitted for REGULATION SERVICE shall not be
filtered prior to transmission except for anti-aliasing filtering of tie lines.

4.4.4. Metering for jointly owned generation. Common metering equipment shall be installed
where DYNAMIC SCHEDULES or P SEUDO-TIES are implemented be tween two or more
CONTROL AREAS to deliver the output of JOINTLY O WNED UNITS or to serve remote LOAD.

4.5. Verification of Tie Flows

4.5.1. Hourly verification of tie flows. Each C ONTROL A REA shall perform hourly error checks
using tie -line MWh meters with common time synchronization to determine the accuracy of its
control equipment.

4.5.2. Adjustments for equipment error. The CONTROL AREA shall adjust the component
(e.g., tie line meter) of ACE that is in error (if known) or use the interchange meter error (IME )
term of the ACE equation to compensate for any equipment error until repairs can be made.

4.6. Data Recording and Display.

4.6.1. Minimum data recording. The CONTROL A REA shall provide its SYSTEM O PERATORS
with sufficient instrumentation and data recording equipment to facilitate monitoring of control
performance, generation response, and after-the fact analysis of area performance. As a
minimum, the CONTROL A REA must provide its SYSTEM O PERATORS with real- time values for
A REA CONTROL ERROR (ACE), INTERCONNECTION frequency and NET ACTUAL INTERCHANGE
with each ADJACENT CONTROL A REA .

4.6.2. Backup power for data recording. The CONTROL A REA shall provide adequate and
reliable backup power supplies and shall periodically test these supplies at the CONTROL A REA

44
’S control center and other critical locations to ensure continuous operation of AGC and vital
data recording equipment during loss of the normal power supply.

4.7. Data Quality. The CONTROL AREA shall ensure data quality:

4.7.1. Data Integrity. Data shall be sampled at least at the same periodicity with which ACE is
calculated.

4.7.2. Missing or bad data. Missing or bad data shall be flagged for operator display and
archival purposes.
4.7.3. Coincident Data Sampling. Collected data shall be coincident to the greatest practical
extent; i.e., ACE, INTERCONNECTION frequency, net interchange, and other data (see section
4.8.1) shall all be sampled at the same time.

4.7.4. Data Accuracy. Control performance and reliable operation is affected by the accuracy
of the measuring devices. The required minimum values for measuring devices are listed
below:

4.8. Data Retention.

4.8.1. Performance Standard Data. Each CONTROL A REA shall retain its ACE, actual
frequency, SCHEDULED FREQUENCY, N ET ACTUAL INTERCHANGE, N ET SCHEDULED
INTERCHANGE, tie-line meter error correction and FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING data in digital
format at the same scan rate at which the data is collected for at least one year.

4.8.2. Disturbance Control Performance Data. Each CONTROL A REA or RESERVE SHARING
GROUP shall retain documentation of the magnitude of each REPORTABLE D ISTURBANCE as well
as the ACE charts and/or samples used to calculate the CONTROL AREA ’S or RESERVE SHARING
GROUP’S disturbance recovery values. The data shall be retained for one year following the
reporting quarter for which the data was recorded.

4.8.3. Data Format. CONTROL A REA s shall be prepared to supply data to NERC in the industry
standard format (defined below):

4.8.3.1. CPS source data in daily CSV files with time stamped one minute averages of: 1) ACE
and 2) Frequency Deviation from Schedule, will be provided to NERC or the Regions within
one week upon request.

45
4.8.3.2. DCS source data will be supplied in CSV files with time stamped scan rate values for:
1) ACE and 2) Frequency Deviation from Schedule for a time period, from two minute prior to
thirty minutes after the identified disturbance, will be provided to NERC or the Regions within
one week upon request.

4.8.3.3. Other data (as defined in Requirement 4.8.1, “Performance Standard Data”) may be
requested on an ad hoc basis by NERC and the Regions.

4.8.3.4. A sample of the specific file format and naming convention required can be found on
the NERC Resources Subcommittee web page.

5. Calibration of measurement devices. Each CONTROL AREA shall at least annually check
and calibrate its time error and frequency devices against a common reference.

INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE STANDARD

INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE provides a measure of non-scheduled I NTERCHANGE and bilaterally

scheduled inadvertent payback. These transfers are caused by such factors as CONTROL A REA
regulation and frequency response, metering errors in frequency and/or interchange
measurements (either scheduled or actual), unilateral INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE payback and
human errors.

The I NADVERTENT INTERCHANGE Standard defines a process for monitoring CONTROL AREAS to
help ensure that, over the long term, the CONTROL A REAS do not excessively depend on other
CONTROL A REAS in the INTERCONNECTION for meeting their demand or INTERCHANGE
obligations.

Each CONTROL A REA shall, through daily INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE verification and the use of
reliable metering equipment, accurately account for INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE. Each
CONTROL A REA shall actively prevent unintentional INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulation
due to poor control. Each CONTROL AREA shall also be diligent in reducing accumulated
inadvertent balances in accordance with Operating Policies.

STANDARDS

1. I NADVERTENT INTERCHANGE calculation. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE shall be calculated

and recorded hourly. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE may accumulate as energy into or out of the
CONTROL A REA .

2. Including all interconnections. Each CONTROL A REA shall include all AC tie lines that
connect to its physically ADJACENT CONTROL AREAS in its INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE account.
Interchange served through jointly owned facilities must be properly taken into account.

3. Metering requirements. All CONTROL AREA INTERCONNECTION points shall be equipped

with common MWh meters, with readings provided hourly to the control centers of both
A DJACENT CONTROL A REAS.

46
4. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE Accounting. A DJACENT CONTROL AREAS shall operate to a
common NET INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE and ACTUAL N ET INTERCHANGE value and shall record
these hourly quantities, with like values but opposite sign. Each CONTROL AREA shall compute
its INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE based on the following:

4.1. Daily accounting. Each CONTROL AREA, by the end of the next business day, shall agree
with its adjacent CONTROL A REAS to:

4.1.1. The hourly values of NET INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE.

4.1.2. The hourly integrated MWh values of NET ACTUAL INTERCHANGE

4.2. Monthly accounting . Each CONTROL AREA shall use the agreed-to Daily and Monthly
accounting data to compile its monthly accumulated INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE for the On-
Peak and Off-Peak hours of the month.

4.3. After-the -Fact Corrections. After-the-fact corrections to the agreed-to Daily and
Monthly accounting data shall only be made to reflect actual operating conditions (e.g. a meter
being used for control was sending bad data). Changes or corrections based on non-reliability
considerations shall not be reflected in the CONTROL A REA’s INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE.
After-the-fact corrections to scheduled or actual values will not be accepted without agreement
of the ADJACENT CONTROL A REA (s).

5. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE payback. Each CONTROL AREA shall be diligent in reducing

accumulated inadvertent balances. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulations shall be paid
back by either of the following methods:

5.1. Energy “in-kind” payback. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulated during “onpeak”

hours shall only be paid back during “on-peak” hours. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE
accumulated during “off-peak” hours shall only be paid back during “offpeak” hours.

5.1.1. Bilateral payback. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulations may be paid back via an
INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE with another CONTROL A REA .

5.1.1.1. Opposite balances. The SOURCE CONTROL A REA and SINK CONTROL A REA must have
inadvertent accumulations in the opposite direction.

5.1.1.2. Agreement on schedule. The terms of the inadvertent payback INTERCHANGE

SCHEDULE shall be agreed upon by all involved CONTROL A REAS and TRANSMISSION P ROVIDERS.

5.1.2. Unilateral payback. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulations may be paid back

unilaterally controlling to a target of non-zero ACE. Controlling to a nonzero ACE ensures that
the unilateral payback is accounted for in the CPS calculations. The unilateral payback control
offset is limited to the CONTROL A REA’s L 10 limit and shall not burden the INTERCONNECTION.

5.2. Other payback methods. Upon agreement by all R EGIONS within an INTERCONNECTION,
other methods of INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE payback may be utilized.

47
6 . INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE summary. Each CONTROL A REA shall submit a monthly
summary of INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE. These summaries shall not include any after-the-fact
changes that were not agreed to by the SOURCE CONTROL A REA , SINK CONTROL A REA and all
INTERMEDIARY CONTROL A REA(s).

6.1. Summary balances. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE summaries shall include at least the
previous accumulation, net accumulation for the month, and final net accumulation, for both
the “on-peak” and “off-peak” periods.

6.2. Summary submission. Each CONTROL AREA shall submit its monthly summary report to
its Resources Subcommittee Survey Contact by the 15th calendar day of the following month.
The Resources Subcommittee Survey Contact will prepare a composite tabulation and submit
that tabulation to the NERC staff by the 22 nd calendar day of the month.

6.2.1. Failure to Report. A CONTROL AREA that neither submits a report nor supplies a reason
for not submitting the required data by the 20th calendar day of the following month shall be
considered non-compliant.

6.2.2. Dispute Resolution. Adjacent CONTROL AREAS that cannot mutually agree upon their
respective NET A CTUAL INTERCHANGE or NET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE quantities by the 15 th
calendar day of the following month shall, for the purposes of dispute resolution, submit a
report to their respective Resources Subcommittee Survey Contact. The report shall describe
the nature and the cause of the dispute as well as a process for correcting the discrepancy.

48
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Some selected contributions to the literature are the following:

1. Grainger, J. J. and Stevenson, W. D.: Power System Analysis. McGraw-Hill, 1994

2. Nagrath, I. J. and Kothary, D.P: Modern Power System Analysis (2nd Edition) Tata
McGraw- Hill, 1993.
3. Bergen, A. R: Power System Analysis. Prentice-Hall, 2000.

4. Elgerd, O. I.: Electric Energy Systems Theory. An Introduction. (2 nd Edition)

McGraw- Hill, 1982.

5. El – Hawary, M. E.: Electric Power System. Design and Analysis. (revised printing)
IEEE Press, 1995.
6. WECC Dispatcher Training Program Handbook.

7. WECC Operations Training Program.

8. Northwest Power Pool Operating Manual.

9. Comish, Joseph W.: Dispatcher System Operator Handbook. Original Distribution,

May 1985

10. "Economic Dispatch of Generation via Valve Point Loading, L.H. Fink, H.G.
Kwatny and J.P. McDonald," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol.
PAS-88, no. 6, pp. 805-811, June, 1969.

11. "On the Optimal Dynamic Dispatch of Real Power", H.G. Kwatny and T.E.
Bechert, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-91, No. 3, pp.
889-898, May/June, 1972.

12. "On the Structure of Optimal Area Controls in Electric Power Networks", IEEE
Trans. on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-18, No. 2, pp. 167-174, April, 1973.

13. "An Optimal Tracking approach to Load-Frequency Control H.G. Kwatny, K.C.
Kalnitsky and A.D. Bhatt, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,Vol. PAS -
94, No. 5, pp. 1635-1693, September/October, 1975.
"Coordination of Economic Dispatch and Load-Frequency Control in Electric
Power Systems", H.G. Kwatny and T.A. Athay, Proceedings 19th Conference on
Decision and Control, pp. 703-714, 1979

49
 APPENDIX A

AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL- OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1.Two power systems A and B are operating in parallel. If system A increases its
generation to deliver 100 MW to system B, what will be the effect if system B does
not reduce its generation simultaneously?
a. frequency will increase
b. frequency of both A and B will decrease

c. frequency will remain unchanged.

Ans: (a)

2. Governors for controlling the speed of power generation units provide

a. A flat speed -load characteristics
b. An increase of speed with increasing load

c. A decrease of speed with increasing load

Ans. c

3. When two identical a.c generating units are operated in parallel on governor
control, and one machine has a 5% governor droop and the other a 10 %
droop , the machine with the greater governor droop will
a. Tend to take the greater portion of load changes
b. Share load equally with the other machine

c. Tend to take the lesser portion of load changes.

Ans. c

4. On load-frequency control installations, error signals are developed

proportional to the frequency error. If frequency declines , the error signa l
will act to
a. Increase prime move input to the generators
b. Reduce prime mover input to the generators

c. Increase generator voltages

Ans. a

50
 5. When inter-connected power systems operate with tie-line bias, they will
respond to
a. Frequency changes only
b. Both frequency & tie -line load changes
c. Tie- line load changes only

6. Power system A is operating in parallel with other power systems and has a
frequency bias of 50 MW per 0.1 Hz. For a loss of generation in one of the
interconnected systems which results in a frequency drop of 0.03 Hz , power
system A should
a. Provide 30 MW of support
b. Not be affected

c. Provide 15 MW of support

Ans. c

7. Area control error is given by ACE = (To -T1) - 10 .B. (FO-F1), where

ACE- area control error

To -scheduled net interchange

T1- Actual net interchange

Fo- desired frequency, Hz

F1-actual frequency, Hz
B- Area bias, MW/one-tenth Hz

If scheduled net interchange To = 200 MW into the system, actual net interchange
T1 =180 MW into the system, Fo = 50 Hz, F1= 49.9 Hz, B= 150 MW/0.1 Hz, then
the ACE is
a. +150 MW
b. zero

c. +170 MW

d. -130 MW

8. If frequency bias is set too low, an interconnected power system will

respond to troubles in adjacent systems with
a. More than its share of bias response

51
 b. Correct bias response

c. Less than its share of bias response

9. If a power system operates at an average frequency of less than 50 Hz,

a. No time error will accumulate

b. There will be a slow accumulated time error

c. There will be a fast accumulated time error.

Ans. b

10. When a power system operator observes an accumulated time error, he

should correct it by
a. Increasing generation on his system
b. ]reducing generation on his system

c. c0-ordinating time error with other interconnected systems

Ans. c

52
 APPENDIX B
AGC AND SCHEDULING QUESTIONS

1. If an isolated system was being regulated by governor control from one unit, which
governor droop setting would tend to maintain frequency nearest to the frequency set point:

A. 2% governor droop B. 10% governor droop

C. 8% governor droop D. 0% governor droop

2. What are the two primary monitoring functions of an AGC system?

A. Generator loading B. Frequency

C. System voltage D. Intertie loading

3. Which of the following will cause the AGC to send lower pulses to the generators?

A. High voltage on the system. B. The loss of another generator on the system.
C. The loss of customer load. D. Low frequency on the WECC network.

4. If a WECC network frequency excursion reduced the frequency by 0.04 Hz and your system
frequency bias was 100 MW, how many MW would your system initially contribute to
correcting the problem?

A. 400 MW B. 0.4 MW
C. 4.0 MW D. 40 MW

5. A large generator in another control area has tripped and frequency has dropped to 59.9 Hz.
Your frequency bias is -50 MW/.1 Hz. Your Area Control Error should be:

A. + 50 MW B. 0 MW
C. - 50 MW D. None of the above

6. According to the NERC Policies, which of the following methods may be used to calculate
frequency bias?

A. A fixed frequency bias value may be used which is based on a fixed, straight-line function of
tie -line deviation versus frequency deviation. The fixed value shall be determined by observing
and averaging the frequency response characteristic for several disturbances during on-peak
hours.
B. A variable (linear or non-linear) bias value may be used which is based on a variable
function of tie -line deviation to frequency deviation. The variable frequency bias value shall be
determined by analyzing frequency response as it varies with factors such as load, generation,
governor characteristics, and frequency.
C. Simply set it at 1% of the estimated yearly peak demand for the control area.
D. Answers A, B, and C.
E. Answers A and B.

53
7. Your frequency bias setting is -50 MW/0.1 Hz. Your ACE is zero, but your net interchange
deviation is +50 MW. What is the frequency?

A. 59.99 Hz B. 60.10 Hz
C. 59.90 Hz D. 60.01 Hz

8. The WECC guidelines provide for an automatic time error bias setting (in MW/SEC) at:

A. 5% of the frequency bias setting. B. 10% of the frequency bias setting.

C. 20% of the frequency bias setting. D. 30% of the frequency bias setting.

9. For a manual time error correction utilizing a change in scheduled frequency, for a system
with a frequency bias of 280 MW/0.1 Hz, how much response would you expect from the 0.02
Hz offset?

A. 5.6 MW B. 28 MW C. 56 MW

10. Time error is fast and a manual correction is requested. All systems utilizing scheduled
frequency offset should:

A. Raise scheduled frequency to 60.02.

B. Lower scheduled frequency to 59.98.
C. Raise scheduled frequency by .01 Hz.

11. When a manual time error correction starts, which of the following should be done?

A. Reset the time clock to zero.

B. Reset the time standard to match the WECC time monitor.
C. Leave the automatic time correction equipment in service.

12. If WECC operated at 60.02 Hz for 10 hours and 59.98 Hz for 10 hours, how much net time
error would accumulate?

A. .002 seconds B. 2 seconds

C. 0 seconds D. 20 seconds

13. If the total time error is +3.5 seconds, how much would the AGC automatic time error
correction feature adjust your generation if your frequency bias is 40 MW?

A. 0.4 MW B. 140 MW
C. 40 MW D. 12 MW

14. What should you do upon receiving a message from CISO indicating that the time error
today at 1400 hours was +1.2 seconds and your time error counter indicated 1.0 seconds at
1400?

A. Reset the AGC frequency set point to 59.98 Hz.

B. Reset the AGC frequency set point to 60.02 Hz.
C. Add .2 seconds to your time error counter.

54
D. Reset the time error meter to 0.

15. When making inadvertent exchanges with another control area,

A. The amount scheduled must be mutually agreed upon by all affected systems.
B. Other systems need not agree to or be notified of the exchange, even if the exchange uses a
transmission path of that third entity.
C. Unilateral exchanges can be initiated even if manual time error correction is in effect.

16. Inadvertent interchange is identified as:

A. The actual amount of energy flowing on a tie line regardless of the amount scheduled.
B. The difference between net actual interchange and net scheduled interchange.
C. Inadvertent interchange is always caused by loop flow.
D. A and B are correct.

17. Frequency bias and frequency response are:

A. Expressed in MW/0.1 Hz. B. Expressed in MW/second.

C. Expressed in MW/cycles of deviation. D. None of the above.

18. Frequency bias serves to:

A. Determine the frequency “dead band” of .05 to 1.0 in establishing ACE.

B. Determine MW of response obligation to a given change in frequency.
C. Determine the amount of time error to be automatically corrected by AGC.
D. None of the above are correct.

19. A Control Area must contain:

A. Loads in excess of 300 MW without any generation

B. Twice as much generation as loads
C. Some hydro generation for regulation
D. Generation

20. Your total system load is 500 MW and 300 MW is scheduled to you on three tie lines. At
09:20 you lose one of the three tie lines reducing the tie line capacity to 290 MW. What would
you do?

A. Next hour reduce schedules to prepare for the next contingency

B. Ignore it, 10 MW overload won’t hurt anything for one hour
C. Reduce schedules to 250 MW immediately
D. Reduce schedules to zero on the hour
E. Promptly reduce schedules to 290 MW or less.

21. Scheduled interchange is 300 MW on three tie lines into your utility. The actual load on the
three lines is 320 MW. If frequency is normal, what would be the AGC response?

55
A. The AGC would be sending raise pulses to your generators
B. The AGC would be sending lower pulses to your generators
C. The AGC would trip off
D. The AGC wouldn’t do anything for 72 seconds

22. System A experienced loss of a major unit and purchased 100 MW of capacity from system
B @10¢/KW/day. System A also purchased 100 MW of energy for 10 hours @ 40 Mills/KWH.
How much does System A owe System B at the end of the day?

A. $500 B. $5,000
C. $50,000 D. $500,000

23. If a dynamically scheduled remote generating unit loses a coal pulverizer and reduces
generation by 100 MW and your ownership share is 65%, would you?

A. Adjust tie line schedules by 6.5 MW

B. Do nothing and let the AGC reduce local generation
C. Do nothing and allow AGC to increase local generation
D. Call up the plant operator and insist that unit load up again

24. At 1221 hours an interchange schedule was agreed upon for the ensuing hour. What is the
official termination time?

A. 1300 B. 1400
C. 1330 D. 1350

25. On the above transaction in WECC, when would the normal ramp time start?

A. 1250 B. 1400
C. 1230 D. 1410

56
 APPENDIX C
TIME ERROR CORRECTION QUESTIONS

1. According to NERC Policy 1.D, an appropriate offset for (manual) time error correction may
be applied as follows:

A. The scheduled frequency may be offset by 0.02 Hz, leaving the bias setting normal.
B. The scheduled net interchange (MW) may be offset by an amount equal to the computed
bias contribution during a 0.02 Hz frequency deviation (20% of bias).
C. Both of the above are correct but only one is used in WECC.

2. For a manual time error correction utilizing a change in scheduled frequency, for a system
with a frequency bias of 280 MW/0.1 Hz, how much response would you expect from the .02
Hz offset?

A. 5.6 MW
B. 28 MW
C. 56 MW

3. Time error corrections are to be effective on the hour or half -hour. How much prior notice is
required before initiating a time error correction?

A. 30 minutes with a minimum time error of 2 seconds.

B. 20 minutes with a minimum time error of 2 seconds.
C. 10 minutes with a minimum time error of 2 seconds.

4. Time error is fast and a manual correction is requested. All systems utilizing scheduled
frequency offset should:

A. Raise scheduled frequency to 60.02.

B. Lower scheduled frequency to 59.98.
C. Raise scheduled frequency by .01 Hz.

5. When a (manual) time error correction commences, which of the following should be done?

A. Reset the time clock to zero.

B. Reset the time standard to match the WECC time monitor.
C. Leave the automatic time correction equipment in service.

6. The WECC time monitor must be a system with:

A. A system load greater than 3600 MW.
B. Location as near the geographical center of WECC as possible.
C. Location as near the electrical center of WECC as possible.
D. Accurate time monitoring equipment.

57
7. If the WECC network remained linked together for 63 days and the time error in Canada at
BCHA indicated -13 seconds, what would SDGE indicate if all instruments were accurate and
not reset?

A. +13 seconds
B. -13 minutes
C. -1.3 seconds
D. -13 seconds

8. Which are contributors to time error?

A. AGC lag.
B. Time monitoring equipment failure.
C. Plant operators take units off AGC control.
D. Electromagnetic pulse from the sun.

9. If WECC operated at 60.02 Hz for 10 hours and 59.98 Hz for 10 hours, how much net time
error would accumulate?

A. .002 seconds
B. 2 seconds
C. 0 seconds
D. 20 seconds

10. What should you do upon receiving a message from CAISO indicating that the time
error today at 1400 hours was +1.2 seconds and your time error counter indicated 1.0
seconds at 1400?

A. Reset the AGC frequency set point to 59.98 Hz.

B. Reset the AGC frequency set point to 60.02 Hz.
C. Add .2 seconds to your time error counter.
D. Reset the time error meter to 0.

11. How is the system total time error determined?

A. Comparison of required generation with actual generation.

B. Automatic tripping of AGC for large frequency excursions.
C. Comparison of accumulated system time with a time standard.
D. None of the above are correct.

58
 APPENDIX D
MORE QUESTIONS ABOUT AGC

1. List the quantities which must be considered by AGC to develop the ACE when on tie
linebias mode:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. Hydrothermal computer programs are common on AGC systems in WECC. Which of the
following are required to be manually input daily to assure that the hydrothermal program
provides the best economic and practical solution for system generation?

A. Which units are available.

B. Projected system load curve.
C. Projected water releases.
D. All of the above.

3. Frequency bias and frequency response are:

A. Expressed in MW/0.1 Hz.

B. Expressed in MW/second.
C. Expressed in MW/cycles of deviation.
D. None of the above.

4. Frequency bias serves to:

A. Determine the frequency “dead band” of .05 to 1.0 in establishing ACE.

B. Determine MW of response obligation to a given change in frequency.
C. Determine the amount of time error to be automatically corrected by AGC.
D. None of the above are correct.

5. At 1123 hours, a 400 MW unit was tripped on your system causing frequency to deviate
slightly. The WECC frequency bias contributions brought frequency back almost to 60 Hz.
How long do you have to zero the ACE or return it to your pre-event indication, since you are
in a disturbance condition?

A. One minute.
B. Okay to wait until ramp time.
C. You may not have to.
D. 15 minutes.

59
6. If the 400 MW unit in question #6 is not covered by reserve for 22 minutes, will the time
error increase or decrease?

A. Stay the same.

B. Increase in slow or - direction.
C. Increase in slow or + direction.
D. Time error clocks trip off when frequency goes low.

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