·Lab

guide SA : Vol
Juliana Villate
:

·
Lab guide Osmosis in
potatoes :
Ana SofiaBecerra

Stem Cells
Activity Answers Sava Torres
:
 Cell Theory
1 . All
organisms are composed of one or more cells

2 The cell the and

. is basic unit of structure
organization in
organisms

3 All cells cells

. come from
preexisting
image zize X Image scale= paper scale x real size

ruler written in paper

real size=
Image zize x Image scale

paper scale
 NOTES
Eukaryotic organisms that live in Freshwater
environments able
.

They are to carry all functions

Of life .

Characteristics :
1
Single -celled organisms
.

7
.
Reproduces asexually .
Two
.
2 Heterotroph Eats smaller .
Parameli um Can Fuse before di -

unicellular to to
carry out form
organisms viding a

obtain energy and matter I

of sexual reproduction .

dissolved
3 Cytoplasm contains . Waste Products
8
:

.
are excreted
that metabolic
enzymes catalyze the anal Pore
.

through .

reactions like digestion and

of celular structures
the
synthesis .

4
. It can control beating
of cilia
to move in different directions . For homeostasis
9 :

excess water
Gresponse
.

in the within the cell is

to
changes collected
environment .
into a pair Contractile vacuoles .

they swell and expel water

the cell
3 Will .
grow
until it reaches a through an
opening in

maximum surface area membrane .

cuntil it divides)

G Divides
.

by mitosis .
 soil fresh water
Eukaryotic organisms that live in
, ,
oceans and even in snow on mountaintops Are able to
,
.

out all functions of life

carry

characteristics :
1 .
Single -celled eukaryotic 5 It will grow until
.
it reaches

organisms a maximum surface area .

until it divials

2 .

Aututroph usingProtas a
,
e
es 6 The nucleus of the cell divides
.

via mitosis .
Reproduces a
sexually .

.
3
Cytoplasm/chloro plast : The nuclel can also divide sexual
contain dissol red enzymes reproduction .

that
catalyze
metabolic
reactions like digestion ,
7.

Oxygen by Product of Photosyn

photosynthesis res-
,
Cellular thesis , diffuses
out through
the cell membranes -- excretion
Piration and
synthesis of
cellular structures .

4.
Light Sensitive "Eyespot" : 8
. For homeostasis :

excess water
allows them to sense
light within the cell is collected
and swim to it
using its into a pair contractile vaccoles
two
Flagella illustrating the
, they swell and expel water
organism's ability respond the cell
through
to

to changes
an
opening in
in the environment .
membrane .
 d

I Size
I
=

Image
A =

Actual Size
A M

M =

Magnification
 Surface Area :
Volume

⑨ùïé

Binary Fision and Conjugation

 NOTES

Binary fission :

prokaryotes reproduce through a cell division process called

binary fission .
Like mitosis in eukaryotes ,
chis process involves
copying the

chromosome and
separating one cell into two .

Binary fission is an asexual form of

reproduction through
,
this process bacteria reproduce it is not
only making more
body
cells like in mitosisr .
A dividing bacteria also needs a
copy of its CNA like the

human cell , but human cells bacteria has

unlike
only one circular chromosome found

in the nucleoid /it also doesn't have nucleus)

Conjugation :

conjugation is the process by which one bacterium transfers

genetic material to another

through direct contact .

During conjugation ,
one

bacterium serves as the donor of the genetic material ,

and the other serves as

the recipient The donor bacterivm called the

.
carries a DNA
sequence fertility
factor
An
emergent property is
something that occurs when
parts of an
entity produce
new functions when together , that they do not produce as individual parts

cell > Tissue ->

Organ
=
System :

Organism
 Membrane bound
organelles
·

organelles with a membrane

single
-

-Double

Chloroplast
· Mitochondria

sRE

produce lipids

·RE

Proteins

Lysosomel
break down wast es
 cell theory
One of the that the cells the smallest that all
most important is are unit of life and
living

made of cells , also that all cells

organisms are
cells come from
preexisting

cells

there are
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

·have nucleus/DNA no nucleus/DNA floating

Membrane bound no membrane-bound organelles
organelles
ER ·Unicellular
Single
-

: nucleus
golgi apparatus
·
,
,

-Double have DNA cell

mitochondria ribosomes
cytoplasm
:
, , ,

choroplant membrane ,
cell wall

·
Multicellular or unicelular

have DNA cell

,
ribosomes , cytoplasm ,

membrane
,
some have cell wall plant , fungal
larger than
prokaryotic cells

organelles :

1 Cell membrane semipermeable only molewles

get or out , keeps the homeostasis balancer
:

.
, certain can in ,

encapsulates the cell

.
2
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance in which all the other organelles are suspended
:

3 Ribosomes non-membrane bound organelles directly involved in the manufacture

:

.
,
make
proteins ,
are of

proteins by using RNA and amino acids

.
4 Nucleus :

holds the genetic material, controls the cell activities , has nucleolus/where vibosomes are

produced has ,
a nuclear membrane

5 .

Endoplasmic Reticulum :

processing of molecules , has to do with the

transport of molecules

Rough ER has vibosomes attached

-

:
produce proteins ,

SmoothER : Detorification ,
makes lipids , no vibosomes

6 .

Golgi apparatus
:

actively involved in the manufacturing ,

storage , as well as cransportation of
products from the ER

7 Mitochondria ATP
Makes needs and
oxigen/cellular respiration
:

.
,
sugar
*
8 chloroplast Uses and
light for called photositesis has
:

glucose
.
energy
a
process ,
a
green prement
9 Vacuoles mainly used for storage
:

*
10 Cell Wall additional
layer that
provides protection and helps keep the shape
:

.
a

11
Lysosomes breakedown wastes contain and transport enzymes
:

.
,

12 Cencrioles: division
.

help separate the chromosomes during cell

Life functions

Metabolism ·
living things undertake essential chemical reactions

Reproduction ·
Living things produce offspring ,
either
sexually or
asexually

Sensitivity Living things are responsive to internal and external stimuli

Homeostaeis :
living things maintain a stable internal environment

Excretion :
living things exhibit the removal of waste products
Nutrition :
living things exchange materials and
gases with the environment

Growth :
living things can move and
change shape or size

As a cell grows larger its surface area to volume ratio becomes smaller

Magnification :
scalebar
actual
fruler
scalebar/given

·Actual Size =
ruler measure image
Magnification

*
cells
Only plant
:
 Active Passive
Moves materials from lower to Both Moves materials from higher to

a
higher concentration Both move lower concentration

Requires energy to proceed materials and can Does not require the exera
energy
·Quick
process cross
biological membranes moderately slow process

one direction ·Bidirectional

Affected by temperature Temperature doesn't affect it

transports molecules in the cell Maintains the equilibrium on the cell

It Carvier proteins volved

requires carvier proteins are not in

As the content is reduced the The process is affected by the

oxygen not

processreducesorStars stops ane

a en la entors do not

active cransport influence passive transport

 Phases of mitosis

Prophase
nucleus is

Metaphase
no nuclear
envelope
chromosome midlle

Anaphase
chromatids
pull away sister

Telophase
I new cells
 All cells in a multicelular organism share identical set of
genetic incrvations

the activation of different instructions in specific cells will cause these cells to differentiate and become

specialised/possessing distinctive functionality

Within the nucleus , active

genes are
packaged in a
expanded and accesible fore called euchromation

Euchromatin expressed no vend

genes are se
:

The inactive
genes are
packaged in a condensed and inaccessible form called heterochromation

Heterochromatin :

genes are not

expresig/se ven
negros

·Differentiated have
cells different
regions of DNA
packaged acording to cheir specific function .

Chese unspecialized cells chat possess two

qualities :
are
key

Self-Renewal/ they can continually divide and

replicate

Potency/ they have the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types/

·
Embryonic stem cells/totipotent pluripotent) can form
any
cell
type ,
whilst adt stem cells multipotent unipotent
have a limited
capacity for differentiation

Totipotent Can cell

type as well as
extra-embryonic/placental
:

form
any ,

Pluripotent :

can room
any cell
type /embryonic stem cells

Multipotent : can differenciate into a number or related cell

types/haematopolitic adult stem cells

·
Unipotent : can't differenciate , but are
capable of
reneval/progenitor cells
Stem cells are
necessary for
embryonic development as
Chey are an undifferentiated cell source from which all

other cell
types may be devived

Cells that are not

capable of self-renewal/nerve tissues/ are considered not-stem cells

Stem cells have become a viable cherapeutic option when these tissues become damaged

the cells are extracted from an

appropiate source /embryos ,
vebilical cord blood , certain adult tissues

Biochemical solutions cell differentiation

trigger
New cells the host's
are
implanted into tissue

Immune
system is
suppressed to
prevent rejection

New cells monitored to ensure

they are not cancerous
Mitotic Index

Mitotic Index= Cells immitosis

Total number of cells

Cells
there are
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
·have nucleus /DNA no nucleus/DNA floating
Membrane bound no membrane-bound organelles
organelles
ER ·Unicellular
Single
-

: nucleus
golgi apparatus
·
,
,

-Double have DNA cell

mitochondria ribosomes
cytoplasm
:
, , ,

choroplant membrane ,
cell wall

·
Multicellular or unicelular

have DNA cell

,
ribosomes , cytoplasm ,

membrane
,
some have cell wall plant , fungal
larger than
prokaryotic cells

organelles :

1 Cell membrane semipermeable only molewles

get or out , keeps the homeostasis balancer
:

.
, certain can in ,

encapsulates the cell

.
2
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance in which all the other organelles are suspended
:

3 Ribosomes non-membrane bound organelles directly involved in the manufacture

:

.
,
make
proteins ,
are of

proteins by using RNA and amino acids

 Cell theory
calls are the smallest units of life

Organisms are made of cells

Exceptions :

Skeletal muscle
:

is made
up of muscle fibers
/larger Chan cells and contains hundreds of nucleif
Giant algoe only nucleus multicelular organisms
contains
single so not
a are
:

Aseptate fungi
:

consists in structures called

hyphae/many nucleus

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

As cell the
a
grows larger surface area to volume ratio decreases

The rate at which materials enter or leave the cell depends on the surface area

The rate at which materials are used or

produce depends on the volume

·A cell that be able

is too
large may not to take in the essential materials or excrete waste

substances
quickly enough .

Stem Cells
·
Embryonic stem cells are unspecialized
.
4 Nucleus :

holds the genetic material, controls the cell activities , has nucleolus/where vibosomes are

produced has ,
a nuclear membrane

5 .

Endoplasmic Reticulum :

processing of molecules , has to do with the

transport of molecules

Rough ER has vibosomes attached

-

:
produce proteins ,

SmoothER : Detorification ,
makes lipids , no vibosomes

6 .

Golgi apparatus
:

actively involved in the manufacturing ,

storage , as well as cransportation of
products from the ER

7 Mitochondria ATP
Makes needs and
oxigen/cellular respiration
:

.
,
sugar
*
8 chloroplast Uses and
light for called photositesis has
:

glucose
.
energy
a
process ,
a
green prement
9 Vacuoles mainly used for storage
:

*
10 Cell Wall additional
layer that
provides protection and helps keep the shape
:

.
a

11
Lysosomes breakedown wastes contain and transport enzymes
:

.
,

12 Cencrioles: division
.

help separate the chromosomes during cell

Life functions

Metabolism :
living things undertake essential chemical reactions

Reproduction :
living things produce offspring ,
either
sexually or
asexually

Sensitivity Living things are responsive to internal and external stimuli

Homeostais :
living things maintain a stable internal environment

Excretion :
living things exhibit the removal of waste products
Nutrition :
living things exchange materials and
gases with the environment

Growth :
living things can move and
change shape or size

Magnification :
scale bar
actual
fruler
scalebar/given

·Actual Size =
ruler measure image
Magnification

*
cells
Only plant
:
Endosymbiosis
·Eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from
prokaryotes via
endosymbiosis
the
prokaryote was
engrifed and over the years evolved into a
eukaryote/not engulfed
cell

2
some
organelles have a double membrane

Are susceptible to antibiotics/bacterial origins

Reproduction via Mitochondria and chloroplast

~
occurs a fission-live process
Naked and circular DNA/ like
provaryotes)
Have vibosomes 70 p size
1 .
Which cacteristic of stem cells makes them useful for
treating Stargardt's disease ?

ar they can differentiate into retinal cells

3 What
.

evidence from the

image of Parameciven Indicates whether the
organism is a

prokaryote or a eukaryoted
al Compartments the cell that
in indicate is a
eukaryote

6 .

& 9000
a1 =
3000

A = 16 33Nm
.

b 3 mi M =

3000
1um

M =
3000

12 .
d .

Glycolipid

16 .

b . 0 .
5
Graphing is an
important procedure used by scientists to
display the data that is collected
during a controlled

experiment

·
Title what independent
the
graph is about relates the and the dependent variable
:

Independent Variable :
controlled
by che experiment the variable I am
testing , X-axis

Dependent Variable :
affected by the independent variable y- axis ,

Scale :

how much each box on the paper is worth

Legend: a short description about the

graph's data
X
·

Title
5 -

S
~

scale
-
& legend
independent variable

line
graphs visualize frend summarized from
group of real data
:

a a

... -

A
Bar comparing data
graph sets and categories against each other
:

Pie
graph show
percentages that add to 100 %
up
800"
:

if they
you
are
graphing multiple subjects use different colors or
pattern lines and explain what are in the
legend
Molewlar biology focuses biological activity level this includes the
investigating molecular
on at a structure

and function of chemical substances and

determinining their interactions as part of
living processes

Metabolism is the totality of chemical reactions that occur in a cell or

organism

the reactions controlled

are
by enzymes

Chey have two

key functions

Provide source of for cellular processes/growth reproduction

a
energy ,

Enable Che synthesis and assimilation of new materials for use in the cell

Metabolic catabolic
reactions follow anabolic or
pathways

May involve organic or

inorganic molecules

Build up molecules
complex from
simple ones

formation of macromolecules from monomers

The macromolecules involves condensation

synthesis of reactions

and
monomers
covalently joined water produced as a
by product

·Anna the builder

Breaks molecules into covalent bonds

complex simple ones

includes the release of monomers from macromolecules 0 O Share

The ionic bonds

breakdown of macromolecules involves
hydrolisis reactions

covalent bonds broken via the consumption of water 0

are o one keeps the e

Break-dancing cat
Hydrogen bonds

electrical atraction without movement e

 ~Carbon molecules found living things
containing in
-

· C

~Carbon
There are

forms
few
exceptions /carbonates

the basis
,

of
organic
, and

life
oxides

aue to
of

its
carbon

capacity to form a covalent bonds

·

this allows form and stable

it to a
variety of
large complex molecules

Chere are a main

types of
organic compons/charbohydrates , lipids ,
proteins ,
nucleic acids

Carbohydrates
momomer= monosaccharide

·
Lypids
no momomers

0 H H H H

HO C C C CH acid
carboxyl
*
group
HH H H H
*
fatty acid

·Proteins

monomer = Amino acid/20 types

H HO

H N C C OH
amine
group carboxyI group
R
variable
group

Acid
·

Nucleic

monomer= nucleotide/ARN =DNA

living Chings have a "vital force" needed to make organic molecules

Organic molecules can

only be
synthesised by living systems
Friederich Wohler disproved the inorganic salt
cheory in 1828 by synthesising vrea
artificially from an

Cyanic acid +
Ammonia : Ammonium Cyanate + Urea
 made up of two
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to
oxygen atom
:
an

- 0 =Oxigen has a
high electronegativity and attracts shared electrons more
scrongly

+
-
~
+
g
H electrons orbit closer to the oxygen atom creating polarity

the molecule allows it with charged

dipolarity of water to form
polar associations other molecules

bonds between
Hydrogen are
particularly strong polar associations that form
hydrogen and eicher florine ,

oxigen ,
or nicrogen/Hatoms have a
very
weak
electronegativity while the others a
very strong oner

↑
...
S
-
·

.
a ⑲. ⑱
t
N

--

hidrogen bonds

Intermolecular bonding between water molecules water distinct properties

give
Thermal Properties

Water can absorb significant amounts or heat

energy before
changing state

Water coolant
is a
highly effective
making it a
component of sweat

Cohesive Adhesive Properties

Water sticks to water molecules /cohesion) and forms intermolecular associations with
charged molecules adhesion

*
cohesion = like molecules stick together

*
Adhesion dissimilar molecules stick
together
=

Solvent Properties
Water dissolves polar ionic substances/making it an effective
way
of
transport

sodium chlorine , glucose ,

amimo acids and
oxigen are soluble in water
lipids are not

X X X

Blood conized Red blood

cells
short-term
energy source

· CH20

Monosacchavides condensation disacchavides and

can be joined together via reactions to form
polysaccharides
·
Polysaccharides of glucose
·
Cellulose /plant cell Wall /B) /inear arrangement
·
Starch/energy//plants use it,
roots)

Amylose /a-glucosel /ineau

Amylopective /a glucose//branched)
-

·
Glycogen /a- glucosel/branched)

they are
non-polar /do not mix with water

they include triglycerides , phospholipids ,

steroids ,
waxes and carotenoids

functions

Storage of
energy

Hormonal roles

Insulation

Protection of internal cavities

Structural components of a cell

fats and oils that function as a

long-term energy source

~formed via condensation between glycerol and

three acid chains

fatty
·
Condensation reactions produce water
 carbohy,drate Lipid

Storage short term

Long-term
Osmosis more effect on the cell Less effect on cell

Digestion readily digested less easily digested

ATP Yield Lower higher

Solubility Water soluble Not water soluble

Fatty acids are

long hydrocarbon chains found in some
types of lipids friglycerides phospholipids
,

Saturated

no double bonds

linear structure , solid at room

temperature

Unsaturated

double bonds

structure
may be bent , liquid at room temperature

Mono= single double bond Poly= multiple

Lipids need to be complexed with proteins to be transported in blood

Lipid globules are broken down by digestive system

Components are combined with

protein to form a
chylomicron

Chylomicrous are released from the intestinal cells into the lacteals

Liver converts
chylomicrous into soluble lipoproteins

High blood cholesteros levels lead to the hardening and narrowing of anteries

The resulting fatty forms plaques

deposits in the vessel walls

Rupturing of the atherosclerotic plaques triggers blood clot formation (thrombus

Certain types fatty acids affect the levels of blood cholesterol in different
of
ways
Cis fats the levels of blood cholesterol levels
increase HDL ,
lowering -

Saturated fat increase levels of LDL ,

raising blood cholesterol levels

Trans LDL and lower HDL levels , cholesterol

greatly raising
do
fats raise

~Any dictary component may cause adverse health effects if taken in

amounts

·
The
body mass index identifies weight ranges eisher via a
nomogram

to che
or
acording formula

BM1 =
mass in
kg
:

height in my

~Acording to the BM1 ,

a value between 18 3-209
.
is a
healthy

weight
Proteins are comprised of
long chains of recurring monomers called amino acids

Chere are 20 different amino acids which are universal to all

living organisms

structure Molecula

H H O

H N C C OH
amine carboxyI group
group
R
variable
group

Amino acids are covalently linked together by peptide bonds /to form
polypeptides
polypeptides are
synchesised on vibosomes via translation

Peptide bonds are formed

by condensation reactions
Polypeptides fold into unique shapes which
may be essential to their function

there are & levels of

protein structure

Describes the order acids

of amino in a
polypeptide sequence

formed by covalent
peptide bond between adjacent amino acids

controls all subsequent levels of protein structure

amino acid
sequence

·Describes the folding of a chain into repeating arrangements

formed
by stablishing bonds acids
hydrogen between hon-adjacent amimo

sequences may form alpha helices or beta-pleated sheets

how

Describes the chain folds into three dimensional

shape
way
a a

formed interactions between variable

by groups

affinity and
repulsion between different side chains will affect overall folding

how
many

function
enzymatic
·Describes the presence of more than one
polypeptide chain in a
biologically active protein

not all proteins will structure

possess a
quaternary

protein interaction

Proteins are a diverse class of compounds that serve different roles

Structure /collagen , spider silk

Hormones /insulin ,
glucagon
Immunity immunoglobulins
Transport haemoglobin)
Sensation (hodopsim
Movement /actin ,
myosin
Enzymes /rubisco ,
catalasef

is a
change in protein structure that results in the loss of it
biological properties

loss structure biological activity

of
tentiary = loss of

Broken
Hydrogen bonds

Denaturation
v

can occur as a result of two conditions

Temperature may disrupt bonds that hold proteins together

PH may alter the charge of the protein ,

changing its
solbility and
shape

th acid

Amimo acids
 =
A DNA that codes
gene is a
sequence of for a
polypeptide
-This occurs via two
process

Transcription /mRNA transcript made from DNA template

Translation /MRNA transcript encodes amimo acid

sequence

=Typically one
gene codes for one
polypeptide however

Alternative splicing can produce multiple variants

some don't translated

genes get

the totality of
proteins expressed within a cell , tissue or
organism
individuals have unique proteome which may
change with
specific conditions

the proteome chan the available

may be
significantly larger number of
genes
Alternative create multiple protein variants
splicing may from one
gene

Post-translational modifications
may promote further variations

The human proteome is

currently predicted to consist of
roughly 100 , 000
proteins

Database of all proteins DNA can

produce
· that acts biological
An
enzyme is a
globular protein as a
catalyst
the molecule reacts with to product is called substrate
an
enzyme form a a

the substrate binds to surface the called the active site

a
region on enzyme

Enzymes catalyse chemical reactions by lowering the activation

energy Chreshold

activation
energy /En is the level of
energy required for a reaction to proceed

products

reactants

No with low
energ barrier High energy barrier
enzyme enzyme

There are two main models used to describe

enzyme-substrate interactions

Lock Model
and
Key
substrate is and chemical
complementary in
shape properties

Explains concept of
specificity

Induced Fit Model

Active site acommodate the

is not
rigid and
changes shape to substrate

Conformational change =

catalysis
The active site shows specifity for a
particular substrate

it is
complementary in
shape and
charge

Enzyme activity is
highly dependent on
tertiary structure

changing shape of active site lowers

enzyme activity
Denaturation disrupt enzyme activity
can

break the bonds needed structure

may
for
tertiary

deformation
Can cause of the
enzyme's active site

For
enzymes and subtrates to interact they first collide in the correct orientation

The rate of
enzyme activity can be improved by increasing the
frequence of collisions

increasing the level or molecular motion /a thermal energy = a kinetic energy

increasing the level of

particles

Enzymes are not consumed

by the reactions they catalyse and can be reused

specific enzymes are

only required in low concentrations in the body
Various factors the activity
may influence
enzyme by
of an

affecting the frequency of successful

enzyme-substrate collisions

affecting the the and substrate to interact

capacity for
enzyme

Low
temperatures have insuficient thermal energy for reactions

At an optimal temperature the rate of

activity will peak

Higher temperature will cause a decrease in activity as the

is denatured
enzyme
changing the pH will alter the charge of the enzyme changing shape and
solubility
This will diminige the
ability of the active site to bind to she

subtrate / activity
Enzymes Will have an
optimal pll at which activity is the highest

Enzyme activity decrease as the pH is not optimal

Increasing substrate concentration will increase the amount of

enzyme activity

More subtrate chance successful collision with

greater of
enzyme
=

After a certain point the enzyme activity will plater , because solution is saturated

with substrate and all active sites are occupied

These enzymes have been fixed to a static surface to

improve the exficiency

of a
catalysed reaction

conserved and products to achieve

enzymes are
asily separation of is easier

·Lactose -
Free Milk ; lactase is purified from
yeast or bacteria , bound to a

substance /alginate beads) .

Milk pass through becoming lactose free
·DNA and RNA are composed of monomers called nucleotides

Chey contain a pentose sugar

scarbon ,
a
phosphate group and a
nisrogenous base A C 6 TU
, , ,

they can be differentiated

by key characteristics

nan)
DNA

Bases

Strands
," a en
copy
of a
Temporary
Basic function instructions instructions
genetic specific

·
The 5'phosphate group of one nucleotide attaches to the
sugar
of another nucleotide

Nucleotide ssrands run in a 5's3' direction

the bond that is formed is a covalent phosphodiester bond red line

·RNA and DNA are have nicrogenous bases

Adenine and Guanine are

double-ringed purines

Cytosine and
Thymine Uracil are
single-ringed pyrimidines

There RNA
messenger RNA ribosomal RNA
three RNA and
:

are main
types of , transfer
Flow information
of
genetic
DNA be copied during the formation cells replication
may or new

DNA code for RNA Granscripts mRNA

by Cranscription
may
The mRNA transcripst code for the production of proteins translation

the DNA replication is a semi-conservative process , since when a new double-stranded DNA molecule is formed

one strand will be from the

original template and the other is newly synchesised

each partner
microgenous base can only pair with is
complementary
the purpose of replication is to duplicate the DNA to create identical sister chromatids prior cell division

the helicase separates the DNA strands

enzyme
the helicase unwinds the double helix

separates strands
by breaking the
hidrogenbonds between base pairs

The DNA polymeraze III copies new strands

Synthesises new strand from

template scrand

covalently joins the nucleotides

together
There are other
enzymes and proteins used in
replication

SBB proteins help stabilize che made

by the helicase
holding in
place each
saving
:

gap ,
for

Topoisomerase help :
to unravel the DNA chains to facilitate replication

Primase that short RNA fragments that

an
enzyme synthesizes function primers
:

as

DNA 1 wich DINA

polymerase replace the primers
:

Ligase the Okazak fragments order to make continuous chain

:

in a
merge
:
The purpose transcription is RNA from the DNA template
of to
synthesise a
sequence

the RNA separates the DNA scrands and RNA

polymerase synthesises a
copy

RNA is released and DNA re-anneals

copy

The RNA cranscript then moves to the

cytoplasm to facilitate translation

RNA will only transcribe the strand with the correct nucleotide
sequence

the strand is cranscribed

antisense
complementary to RNA transcript

the strand transcribed identical to I

sense is not transcript except

involves
polypeptide synchesis by the ribosomes

polypeptides encoded and translated mRNA sequence

are
by genel from an

mRNA is
transported to a vibosome ,
to read the sequence of codons

tRNA carry specific acids that codon

molecules amino
aling opposite to a
specific

ribosomes move along the mRNA and

join the amino acids
together with
peptide bonds
is the controlled release of
energy from
organic compounds glucose to
produce ATP

bonds
Organic molecules stove
energy within their chemical

·ATP functions as inmediate source of

an
energy

ATP considered to be the all cells

energy currency
is of

high energ molecule that serves as an inmediate

energy source

Consists of a nucleoside linked to three phosphates

When ATP ADP

is
hydrolysed to The
energy contained is released for use

The partial breakdown of

glucose for a small ATP yield 2 ATP

it occurs via
glycolysis in the
cytosol

glycolysis glucose
in is converted into
pyruvate carbon
two three molecule

There is ATP
a net
gain of 2

NADY are reduced to form two

hydrogen carrier molecule NADH
is the complete breakdow ATP yield
of
glucose for a
large
it and occurs in the mitochondria
requires oxygen

hydrogen carriers are made in

large quantities NADH

NADH to ATP
are used produce great amounts of 36

fermentation the reversible conversion into intermediate forms

involves of
pyruvate
in animals fermention converts into lactic acid
pyruvate

during strenuous exercise

oxigen demands
by muscles will outstrip supply so muscles produce lactate

in
plants and yeasts ethand and carbon dioxide
pyruvate is fermented to form

ethand and CO2 bread

is used in alcoholic
bebreges causes
leavening of
 is the process
by which some cells synchesise carbon compounds from
inorganic molecules in
presence of sunlight

requires a
photosynthetic pigment like
chlorophyll

plant cells have a specialized organelle adapted to this function

visible light the composed wavelengths

·
from is of of different
sun
range
a

the spectrum of visible light ranges from 100nm violet to 700nm red

The the visible spectrum shortest

colours of are from
longest to
wavelength

photosynthetic pigments are used to absorb

light and convert it into chemical
energy ATP or
glucose
the chlorophyll
main
photosynthetic pigment in
plants is

chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most

effectively

green light is reflected

photosynthesis occurs over two disctinct stages

light dependent reactions convert light energy into ATP

light :dependent reactions use the

energy to
synthesize carbon
compounds
The law of limiting factors states that when a reaction depends on more chan one condition the rate
,
of reaction

the
is limited
by factor nearest its minimum value

photosynchesis is dependent on a number of conditions

photosynthesis is controlled
by enzymes

increasing the temperature will increase kinetic

energy

at
optimal temperature the rate of
photosynchesis will reach a
peak

higher temperature will cause

enzymes to denature
decreasing the rate

becomes photo-activated
as
intensity increases more
chlorophyll
after a certain point the photosynthetic rate will
plateau

this is because all available

chlorophyll are photo-activated and the

rate can't increase

carbon dioxide is involved in the fixation of carbon atoms to molecules

form
organic

more carbon dioxide means more carbon compounds are made

at a certain point the photosynthetic rate will plateau

this is because all the

enzymes responsible of carbon fixation are occupied
Genetic blueprint for
living organisms

encodes
proteins to carry out the cellular processes
·
A specific of DNA that encodes for
particular protein called
sequence a a
gene

a hevitable factor that influences a specific frait

the specific position of a

gene on a chromosome is called the locus

·
Eukaryotic gene
loci are identified
according to
differentiating features

chromosome number

the arm p= short ; q= long

and band
region

· the different possible variations of

Are a
gene

Genes encode a
general characteristics /eye color

·Alleles encode for specific alternatives /bue eyes

·Alleles differ from each ocher

by one or few bases

may change
nucleotide the
a
gene
mutation is
change in the sequence gene This function the protein
:

a of a of

The mutations can be

Somatic and be inherited

occur in
body cells cannot
:

Gereline in sex cells

/gametes) and be
passed to
offspring
:

occurs can on
· the
An
agent that
changel genetic material of an
organism

Point mutations involve the modification nucleotide within

of a
single a
sequence

This can involve substitution , insertion or deletion

Substitution mutations involve

Silent mutations :

no
change in the
polypeptide sequence

Missense mutations :

a
single amimo acid is
changed
Nonsense mutations stop codon created the
a is
fruncating polypepti de
:

Insertions and deletions mutations

changes
cause frameshift in the
reading frame

describes the
totality of
genetic information in an
organism

humans share the their with nucleotide differences

magority of
sequence only short

3 billion base pairs of DNA

the human consists 16 chromosomes

genome of

the 20000
genome contains
protein-coding genes
·DNA is double stranded molecule that functions the material cell
genetic
a as or a

·A double stranded DNA molecule is called chromosome

single

one chromosome contain thousands of

unique genes
may

Chromosomal differs between and

structure
prokaryotic eukaryotic organisms

The DNA is contained in a

region called the nucleoid

they have a
single chromosome
genophore

The DNA is circular and naked

The genome is more

compact

Prokaryotes may
contain excra DNA molecules in addition to the
genophore

These molecules are called plasmids and are

capable of autonomous function

these plasmids bacterial

prokaryotes may exchange by conjugation

Eukaryotic DNA is stoved in membrane bound nucleous

they posses multiple linear chromosomes

DNA is bound to histone proteins to form chromatin

the genome is less compact

the chromosomes exist as uncondensed chromatin except during cell division visible chromosome
·
Eukaryotic organisms have multiple chromosomes each
carrying different
genes

the located at specific gene loc:

genes
are

Chromosomes will have distinctive sizes and other features

Gene loci can be identified

according to chromosome number

in
sexually reproducing species offspring will inherit
genetic information from both parents

two each chromosome

copies of =

diploid en

While all the

body cells will have paired chromosomes ,
the sex cells /gametes will
only have one
pair or each

one copy of each chromosome

haploid
=
n

Organisms what reproduce asexually are

haploid

are the maternal and paternal chromosomes haploid

paired found in

they have identical structural features size , band pattern

have the at the same locipositions

same
genes

The alleles different

may be

not all chromosome pairs are

homologous
sex determination requires disctinct chromosomes

humans have 23 chromosomes 22 are homologous autosomes ,

the 23'd are the sex chromosome heterosome

The sex chromosome for males are different xy ,

but are
homologous for females xx
females have two X chromosomes and
only pass on X to
offspring

Males have the

< and y chromosomes , that is
why they determine the sex of
offspring

if X is passed on = female
offspring /xx

if Y is passed on= male

offspring XY

the chromosome profile of an individual organism can be

represented as a
Karyogram

the
homologous pairs are
arranged by length

They display chromosomes from cells that have been arrested

during mitosis condensed DNA

Chey are used to

identify sex or to
identify chromosomal abnormalities
 which
by cells
·
is the made
process sex are

it is preceded by interphase and involves two divisions

The first division the

homologous chromosomes
separates

reduction division
diploid =
haploid)

the second division separates the sister chromatids

The distinct haploid cells

end result is a
genetically

·DNA is replicated during the Sphase of interphase

replicated chromosomes of identical chromatids

will consist
genetically sister

this replication of DNA means the process of meiosis require two divisions
occurs via the process of
synapsis during Prophase I of meiosis

homologous chromosome connect via chiasmata to form bivalents

genetic exchange at these chiasmata results in recombinant chromosomes

The fusion of two

haploid gametes result in the formation of a
diploid zygote

the zygote can then divide

by mitosis and differentiate to form a
developing embryo

distinct random and

as meiosis result in
genetically gametes ,
fertilisation
by egg sperm will generate

different
zygotes
Identical twins formed after fertilization the the
are
by complete fission of
zygote into two
separate

cell masses
if a
zygote is formed from a
gamete that has experienced a
non-disjunction event the resulting

offspring
will have extra or
missing chromosomes in
every body cell

examples of aneuploidies :

Patar's Syndrome trisomy 13

Edward's
Syndrome trisomy 18

Down Syndrome trisomy 21

klinefelter XXY
Syndrome
Turner's Syndrome monosomy x

These tend to occur on shorter chromosomes

law alleles
of
segregation separated when
haploid gametes form
:

are

Law of independent assorment :

Separation of alleles for one

gene occurs
independently of the separation of alleles for other
gene

Principle of dominance :

recessive alleles will be masked by dominant alleles

homozygous :

alleles are the same

heterozygous alleles different

:

are

hemizygous there allele

:

is
only one

complete dominance allele is

expressed over another BB-bly
phenotype
: one in the

codominance both alleles expressed equally in the cBc"

phenotype
:

are

Sex-linkage :

alleles are located on sex chromosomes

The ratios established probabilities and may actual

represent not mirror results

the outcomes of a
monohybrid cross can be represented using punnet grids
·

1) Typica :
PT

Anulata PI : 2 plants
PT pr pA pr A A

eA
/ prp papT
+

pr pr pr papt a An An

p
=
p1 p p p+ p prpr ppt a
Aa Ac

100 % prp
male

· emale

x X affected disease
by
-

link to and child

parents
Roman numers =

generation

·Arabic numbers individuals in

generation
=

if the
mor is sick
boy is sick

dad the is sick

·
if is sick
girl

/T
The chain reaction artificial method used
rapidly amplify DNA sequences
polymerase is an of
replication to

·
PCR has three steps

Denaturation :

heat separates the strands

Annealing primers designate copying

:

sequence

Elongation taq polymerase copies the

:

sequence

DNA
separates proteins or
fragments of
according to the size and electrical charge
to be
an electric current is used to move molecules
separated through a
gel
large fragments move slower

· satellite DNA short tandem

Non-coding is
composed of
recurring elements repeats

the these repeats differ

according to the individual
length of will

unique DNA profiles can therefore be established by comparing STR loci

genetic modification is carried out

by gene transfer between species

DNA excraction of interest and vector isolated

gene
:

are

Digestion gene and vector with restriction endomucleales

:

are cut

Ligation gene is placed into the vector

:

Transformation :

recombinant vector inserted into host cell

clones identical
are
groups of
genetically organisms single parent cell

can occur
naturally via asexual reproduction methods

also division somatic cell nuclear transfer

can occur
artificially via
embryonic or
The structure of DNA is related to its role material
as
genetic
There are some
sequences that don't encode for proteins

Statellite DNA short tandem

repeats
:

Telomers the end of chromosomes

region
:

at

Introns
non-coding sequences
:

Non-coding genes +RNA and rRNA

:

Gene
regulatory sequences : promoters

in cells the DNA is bound histone proteing that nucleosomel

eukaryotic by form

This compacts the of DNA storage

packaging allowing effective

the nucleosomes are then linked

together and compressed to form a chromation

a nucleosome made from DNA and 9 histone proteins

DNA wrap arround the core twice

8 histone proteins make a core

a 9ch histome protein completes the structure

1 when
metre of uncoiled DNA shortens to 18cm it is
arranged into

nucleosomes
is the process which DNA
RNAsequence
by a
sequence is copied into an

Promoter :

The non-coding sequence that is responsible for the initiation of transcription

the
Coding sequence region of DNA Chat is tramcribed
by RNA polymerase
:

·
Terminator The sequence that transcription
is responsible for
ending
:

RNA polymerase binds to the promoter and separate DNA strands

NTP bind complementary bases

·
RNApolymerase moves 5's3' direction and
covalently binds the NTPstogether
 the site
are of
polypeptide synthesis
They contain two different subvnits

small subunits contains mRNA

an
binding site

large subunits contain three tRNA

binding sites A ,
P E
,

translation occurs in estages

Initiation active ribosomal complex mRNA
assembly on an
sequence
:

of an

added to chain
Elongation new amino acid
developing peptide
:

a is a

Translocation :

The vibosome moves to the next codon position

Termination ribosomal complex and dissociate mRNA

polypeptide from the
:

or
polyribosome is a
group of two or more ribosomes
translating an mRNA sequence simultaneously
 is the in the hevitable characteristics population
cumulative
change of a

evolution requires a source of

change
sources of
change :

mutation and chromosomal

genetic abnormalities

sexual flow
reproduction or
gene migration
·Mechanisms for
change :

random events drift

genetic
natural or artificial selection

·
Mutation

change in the nucleotide sequence of a section of DNA

gerenline mutations occur in sex cells and can be

passed to
offspring
Meiosis
·

DNA exchanged
crossing over
segments homologous pairs
:

are

independent assortment :
separation of
homologous pairs is random

random fertilization the fusion of two haploid gametes is random

:

·Gene Flow

describes the movement of alleles between disparate populations

This can alter the

diversity of a
population via
immigration or
emigration
·Genetic Drift :

change in the
composition of a
gene pool
due to chance events

is
greater when population is smaller

·Natural Selection :

change in the composition of a

gene pool as a result of the presence of environmental pressures

Artificial Selection
·

humans determine the favorability or a

particular frait

may involve selective

breeding or
transgenic techiques

mechanisms of
change reduce variation ,
increasing the digree of
genetic divergence leading to speciation

this occurs when populations cannot interbreed and produce offspring

identifying similarities in unrelated organisms common

ancestry

showing characteristics
a
change in between current and ancestral species

·
evidence includes

paleontology fossil record

comparative anatomy homologous structures

selective
breeding

biogeography
Lamark habitual disuse
proposed organismal change via use and transformation
:

Darwin-Wallace posited descent with modifications adaptative advantage

theory of
:

·Neo- Darwinism Darwinian wich Mendelian

combines
theory genetics
:

The
theory was described by Darwin as the survival of the fittest

the to
change that best able to
reproduce
organism most
responsive is

Inherited variation exist within a

population
Competition results from overproduction
Environmental pressures cause selection

·Adaptations that are beneficial are selected for

Genotype frequency changes

over time

Evolution occurs wishin the population

Mutations :

gereline mutations lead to changed characteristics in

ofspring
·Meiosis and random assortment result in variation
crossing over
gamete
:

Sexual Reproduction different distinct zygote

fusion of two
gametes creates
genetically
:

as population grow environmental resistance sets in as resources are limited

the consequence is increased competition and strugle of survival

growth cannot exceed a

carrying capacity

predators ,
available resources , nutrient supply , diseases ,
accumulation of wastes

phenomena natural disasters ,

abiotic factors , weather

are features that make individual suited to its and be classified in &
an environment can
ways

structural physical differences

:

Behavioural patterns activity

:

of

Physiological Variation in
by vital organs
:

response

Developmental changes :

that occurs across a

lifespan

better adapted individuals survive and pass their

genes to
on
offspring
This leads to a
change in allele
frequency in the population as some
genotype become more common
 is the rapid evolutionary diversification of a
single ancestral line

Chis conditions
occurs when members of a
species occupy niches with different

members evolve in
response to the selective pressures

an
example of this is the beak in Darwin's finches

some bacteria strains have evolved antibiotic resistance

genes
collect ,
sort and group information about disparate organisms
enable identification derived scheme
organism according
to
of an a
globally
allow the based
comparison of
organisms on
recognised features

show how closely related

organisms are

·
Eukarya eukaryotic organisms
:

Archea : extremophilic prokaryotic organisms

Bacteria common
prokaryotic organisms
:

the three domains classified

organisms in are
according to a series of taxa

a taxon is standard classification used related organisms

a unit to
group
each taxon includes all devived ancestor
organisms from a
single common

organisms in a common lower taxon must share all

higher taxonomic rank

1 .

Kingdom
2 .

Phylm
.
3 Class

4 .
Order

.
5
Family
6 .
Genus

- .

Species
Every organism is designated a name with two parts

Genus is written first and capitalised Homo

Species follows in lower case Homo sapiens

organisms may have a

sub-species designation
all
organisms have a common name

divided
are methods of identification
whereby organisms are into two categories
be
can
represented into two
ways
Flowchart
as a
branching
as a series of paired statements laid out
 Questionary
1 .
will not fit on nucleus

2 .
random asorted -

crossing over-recombinant chromosomes

PMAT #
y PMAT
3 .
I

4 .

Prophose 1
y metaphase
1

5 .

6 .
↑ Chiasma daughter
N chromosomes

7 .

0 Chiasma
.
point
tetrad association

Reflexion X
comic Español
Leer ingles
internal
Proyecto =C

Historia
 genetic drift

papulation Bottlenecks /mass

1 .
extintion -
reduce more 30 % ) reduce adaptation
2 . Founder Effect /moves from place to start new
comunity

types
Stabilizing
extreme
phenotype

reproductive isoation

Speciation evolutionary process resulting in the formation of new species

-Allopatic speciation :
divergence because
geographical isolation

Pace of time for

speciation species to emerge
-Phyletic Gradualism
continuos changes overtime accumulated over generations
-

Punctuated Equilibrium
fast environmental
changes
Genetic
variety/gametes
% chromosomes = 23 % I

condense cromosomy

crossing over
Evolution

·
change over time

change in the allele

frequency of a
populations gene pool

fossil record provides evidence

by revealing ancestor comparison with descendants
·

features of an for

body fossils -> direct evidence

traces -> indirect evidence

Selective breeding is a form of artificial selection

the desired waits

-man intervenes in
breading or
species to create

the frait frequency becomes later

more common in
generations
-

Comparative anatomy of
groups
of
organisms that show some similarities imply common ancestry

anatomical features that but different called homologous stucture

-

similar instructure are

are
way or use

Natural Selection

among members
the
can
only occur if chere is varration of same species

Mutation ,
meiosis , and sexual reproduction cause variations

Charles Darwin and Wallace survival fittesst-> responsive

-> of the to
change
· variation needed for selection

·Mutations
change the genetic composition gametes changed characteristic in
espring
:

or - a

·Meiosis either
by crossing over prophase1/ or independent assortment /metaphase 1
:

Sexual reproduction combination

genetic material from two sources creates combinations
of
gene
new
:

as populations grow - less resources -> competition for survival

here are
many adaptations for survival /scructural behavioural physiological
, , ,
biochemical ,
developmental
1 .
Variation

.
2 competition

.
3 adaptation

.
4 Selection
adaptive radiation describes rapid evolutionary diversification of ancentral line
a
single
different
members evolve morphological features
by selection pressures
-

-
beack of finches because diet

·Antibiotics are bactericidal /Fill) or bacteriostatic/stop growth)

-
used to great bacterial infections

bacteria
may develop antibiotic resistance
by gene mutation

resistant bacteria will survive and reproduce by binary fission

-bacteria can profilerate without competition

the antibiotic-resistance
-
it can tranfer
gene to others via
plasmid conjugation
chere three selection
are
types of natural

Stabilising Selection :

an intermediate
phenotype is favoured ->
removal of extreme
phenoty bey
and distribution becomes
centrally clustered homogeneity) .
Works when environmental conditions are stable and

competition is low

Directional Selection direction

one
phenotypic extreme is selected phenotypic distribution to shift to one
:
-

- .

works in response to gradual or sustained changes in environmental conditions

favoured deviates
Disruptive Selection both phenotypic in intermediate from she
:
-
extremes are expense of ->

center and creats a bimodal spread This.

happens when environmental conditions fuctrate to favour two

different phenotyps ,
this could eventually split the population/specration -

Classification

plant phyla
·
Bryophyta
-

no vascularisation ,
no
xylem and phloom

-
no leaves, roots , stems ,
Spores ->
reproduction

mosses
-

Filioinophyten
-

vascularization

-
have leaves , roots ,
stem /leaves are pinnate spores ->
reproduce
-
fern-helechos
Conferophyte
-

vascularization

have leaves
/waxy and pointy root, and
woody stem
-

-reproduce by seeds

Pine trees- confers

-

·
Angiospemophyten
-

vascularization

-
have leaves , root , stem

reproduce by seed-flowers may turn in tuits

-

Flower
plant-grass
-

Animal phylen
·
Porifera

no
body symmesly
-

-
no mouth, no ans calcium spiculaty for structure
,

sea
sponge
-

·
Cuidaria

radial
symmerly
-

have mouth ,
no any

have tentable
, with stinging cells
may
-

Jellyfish , anemones, corals

·
Platyhelminsha
bilateral
symerly
-

-
mouth , no anus
,
flattened body , parasitic

tapeworms planaria
-

·
Annelida

bilateral
symetry
-

morth and anus ,

body of
ringed segments
-

earchworm-leeches
· Molluscan

bilateral symmerly

mouth and anus

,
visceral mass
,
muscular foot/may have shell
snails , slugs , octopi , squid ,
clams

·
Archropode

bilateral symmerry

mouch and anus ,

jointed body sections hard exoskeleton
,

insects , custaceans , spiders , scorpions , centipedes

·Chowdaton

bilateral
symmetry
mouth and anus , no tochord

mamals birds, , reptiles , auphibians ,

fish

Homologous and
Analogous traits

traits chat are similar because are devived from common but have different runctions called
ancesmy are

homologous structures

traits chat are

superficialy similar ,
but were derived through separate evolutionary pachways ,
have different sucture but

called
a similar function are
analogous structures

Reproductive Isolation

·
Prezygotic isolation :
occurs before fertilisation /no offsprings

Postzygotic isolation occurs after fertilization

:
.

the isolation has three mechanisms

prezygotic
Temporal isolation populations differ their periods activity reproductive cycles For example leopard
:

two in of or .

and wood reach sexual different interbreed

froys frogs maturity at times s no

Behavioural isolation :

two populations show different courtship patterns .

Some birds
only respond to
species specific
-

mating call

Geographical isolation : two populations occupy different habitats or

separate niches within a common
region .
For example

lions and different habitats interbreed

tigers live in : no
-
-

Ff EE ffee
-
-

FE
FE