Available on Amazon Kindle

Available on Amazon Kindle

Solar PV Systems
Theory, Planning & Design with Calculations

in accordance with NEC

Author: Asif Khokher, PE, NABCEP PVIP, ISA-CAP, PMP, RMP

A Comprehensive Text Book and Guide for Beginners & Professionals

Detailed debate on System Electrical Design & Calculations in accordance with National Electric Code (NEC)

Sizing Calculations of On-Grid and Off-Grid Systems

Preparation Resource for NABCEP Exams

200 Nos NABCEP Associate & Advanced Level MCQs included

 Contents
Preface

1 INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1

1.1 PHOTOVOLTAICS 1
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1.2 ADVANTAGES 2
1.1.3 DISADVANTAGES 2
1.2 HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR CELL 2
1.2.1 INVENTIONS 2
1.2.2 CURRENT PV INSTALL BASE 4
1.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS 5
1.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC INDUSTRY STAKEHOLDERS 6
1.5 SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS 9
1.5.1 SOLAR CONCENTRATORS OR COLLECTORS 9
1.5.2 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY COLLECTORS 10

2 SOLAR RADIATION, ENERGY AND EARTH ROTATION 12

2.1 THE SUN 12

2.2 SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR LIGHT 13
2.3 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR CONSTANT 14
2.3.1 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION 14
2.4 TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION AND AIR MASS 15
2.4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS 15
2.4.2 GLOBAL RADIATION 15
2.4.3 DIRECT RADIATION 15
2.4.4 DIFFUSE RADIATION 16
2.4.5 ALBEDO RADIATION 16
2.4.6 AIR MASS 16
2.5 PEAK SUN VALUE AND HOURS 17
2.5.1 PEAK SUN HOURS 17
2.6 SOLAR IRRADIANCE AND IRRADIATION 18
2.6.1 SOLAR IRRADIANCE (SOLAR POWER) 18
2.6.2 SOLAR IRRADIATION (SOLAR ENERGY) 18
2.7 SOLAR RADIATION DATA AND MAPS 19
2.7.1 GLOBAL RADIATION MAPS, CHARTS AND TABLES 19
2.8 MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION AND SUNLIGHT 23
2.8.1 PYRANOMETER 23
2.8.2 PYRHELIOMETER 25
2.8.3 IRRADIANCE METER 25
2.8.4 SPECTRAL POWER DENSITY AND PHOTON FLUX 25
2.9 EARTH ORBIT AND ROTATION 26
2.9.1 EARTH ORBIT 26
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 27
2.9.2 SUN DECLINATION 27
2.10 SOLAR TIME AND EQUATION OF TIME GRAPH 28
2.10.1 SOLAR TIME 28
2.10.2 SOLAR NOON 29
2.10.3 LOCAL STANDARD TIME 29
2.11 SUN PATH CHARTS AND SOLAR WINDOW 30
2.11.1 SUN PATH 30
2.11.2 SUN ZENITH, ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES 30
2.11.3 SUN PATH CHARTS 31
2.11.4 SOLAR WINDOW 31
2.12 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE AZIMUTH AND TILT ANGLES 32
2.12.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE OPTIMAL ORIENTATION 33
2.12.2 NON-OPTIMAL ORIENTATION 33
2.13 SOLAR MAGNETIC DECLINATION AND TILT ANGLES 34
2.14 POWER AND ENERGY BASIC ELECTRICAL EQUATIONS 34

3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS, MODULES AND ARRAYS 36

3.1 ATOM, SEMICONDUCTORS AND BAND GAP 36

3.1.1 THE ATOM 36
3.1.2 CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR 37
3.1.3 BAND GAP OF CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR 38
3.2 SILICON ELEMENT STRUCTURE AND DOPING 39
3.2.1 PURE SILICON 39
3.2.2 DOPING 39
3.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT AND SOLAR CELL WORKING PRINCIPLE 40
3.3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT 40
3.3.2 P-N JUNCTION 40
3.3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL 42
3.4 STRUCTURE, MATERIALS AND FABRICATION OF A SOLAR CELL AND MODULE 43
3.4.1 BASIC STRUCTURE 43
3.4.2 MATERIALS OF A SOLAR CELL 43
3.4.3 FABRICATION OF POLYCRYSTALLINE AND MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON 44
45
3.4.4 MODULE ASSEMBLY 45
3.5 CURRENT-VOLTAGE-POWER CURVES OF SOLAR PV MODULES 46
3.5.1 OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (VOC) 46
3.5.2 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT (ISC) 47
3.5.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT (PMPP) 47
3.5.4 OPERATING POINT 47
3.5.5 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT) 48
3.5.6 RESPONSE TO IRRADIANCE 48
3.6 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT AND CALCULATING VOLTAGES 49
3.6.1 RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE 49
3.6.2 STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC) 50
3.6.3 CALCULATING VOC 50
3.6.4 CELL TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE RISE COEFFICIENT 52
3.7 EFFICIENCY AND FILL FACTOR 53
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3.7.1 EFFICIENCY 53
3.7.2 FILL FACTOR 54
3.8 MODULE SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS 54
3.9 SHADING AND BYPASS DIODES 56
3.10 PV MODULE LABELS 57
3.11 TEST CONDITIONS 58
3.11.1 STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC) 58
3.11.2 NOMINAL OPERATING CONDITIONS (NOC) 58
3.11.3 STANDARD OPERATING CONDITIONS (SOC) 58
3.12 PV MODULE STANDARDS 59
3.12.1 IEC 61215 ED 2.0 – CRYSTALLINE SILICON PV MODULE DESIGN QUALIFICATION 59
3.12.2 IEC61730 ED. 2 - PV MODULE SAFETY QUALIFICATION 59
3.12.3 UL1703 - PV MODULE SAFETY QUALIFICATION 60
3.12.4 IEC 61701 – SALT MIST CORROSION TYPE TEST APPROVAL 60

4 CHARGE CONTROLLER 61

4.1 INTRODUCTION 61
4.2 CHARGE CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS 62
4.2.1 MULTISTAGE CHARGING 62
4.2.2 VOLTAGE REGULATION 63
4.2.3 OVERCHARGE PROTECTION 63
4.2.4 OVER-DISCHARGE PROTECTION 63
4.2.5 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED CONTROL 63
4.3 TYPES OF CHARGE CONTROLLER 64
4.3.1 SHUNT REGULATED CONTROL 64
4.3.2 SERIES REGULATED CONTROL 65
4.3.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATED (PWM) CONTROL 65
4.3.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT CONTROL 66
4.3.5 DIVERSION CHARGE CONTROL 67
4.3.6 PWM VERSUS MPPT CONTROLLER 67
4.4 VOLTAGE SETTINGS IN CHARGE CONTROLLER 68
4.4.1 VOLTAGE REGULATION SETPOINT (MAXIMUM) 68
4.4.2 REGULATION MINIMUM SETPOINT 68
4.4.3 REGULATION HYSTERESIS SETPOINT RANGE 69
4.4.4 LOW VOLTAGE LOAD DISCONNECT SET-POINT 69
4.4.5 EQUALIZATION SETPOINTS 69
4.4.6 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ADJUSTMENTS 69
4.5 SELECTION PARAMETERS OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER 70
4.6 INSTALLATION OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER 71
4.6.1 LOCATION 71
4.6.2 VOLTAGE DROP 71
4.6.3 HOOKS-UP 72

5 SOLAR PV INVERTER 73

5.1 INTRODUCTION 73
5.2 AC, DC AND QUALITY OF POWER 75
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5.2.1 AC POWER AND SINE WAVEFORM 75
5.2.2 OTHER WAVEFORMS AND HARMONICS 76
5.2.3 THREE-PHASE POWER 77
5.2.4 POWER QUALITY 79
5.2.5 DISTORTED WAVEFORMS 80
5.2.6 POWER FACTOR 80
5.2.7 VARYING FREQUENCY 80
5.2.8 EFFECTS OF POOR POWER QUALITY ON POWER SYSTEM 80
5.3 SWITCHING, POWER CONDITIONING AND CONTROL 80
5.3.1 BASIC INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES 81
5.3.2 DC-DC CONVERTER 82
5.3.3 DC-AC CONVERTER 83
5.3.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKERS 85
5.4 TYPES OF SOLAR INVERTERS 86
5.4.1 STAND-ALONE INVERTER 86
5.4.2 UTILITY INTERACTIVE INVERTER 87
5.4.3 STRING INVERTER 88
5.4.4 CENTRAL INVERTER 89
5.4.5 UTILITY-SCALE INVERTERS 89
5.4.6 MICRO-INVERTERS 90
5.4.7 MULTIMODE INVERTER 90
5.5 EARTHING & GROUNDING 91
5.6 SELECTION PARAMETERS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF INVERTER 92
5.7 INVERTER STANDARDS 98
5.8 FINAL NOTE: EFFICIENCY OF INVERTER 100

6 BATTERIES 102

6.1 INTRODUCTION 102

6.1.1 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY 102
6.1.2 BASIC WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTE LEAD ACID CELL 103
6.1.3 THREE STAGE CHARGING 105
6.1.4 FORMATION OF GASSES AND OVERCHARGING 105
6.1.5 SULFATION AND STRATIFICATION 106
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS OF A BATTERY 106
6.2.1 BATTERY CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 106
6.2.2 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE RATE 108
6.2.3 STATE OF CHARGE (SOC) AND DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (DOD) 110
6.2.4 AUTONOMY, SELF-DISCHARGE, CYCLES AND EFFICIENCY 110
6.2.5 SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF BATTERIES 111
6.3 TYPES OF BATTERIES 112
6.3.1 PRIMARY BATTERIES 112
6.3.2 SECONDARY BATTERY 113
6.3.3 SPECIFIC ENERGY DENSITY OF BATTERY 113
6.4 LEAD ACID-BATTERIES 113
6.4.1 FLOODED LEAD ACID BATTERY 114
6.4.2 SEALED OR VALVE REGULATED LEAD ACID BATTERIES 114
6.4.3 COMPARISON OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES 115
6.5 NICKEL BASED BATTERIES 116
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6.5.1 NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY 116
6.5.2 NICKEL-METAL-HYDRIDE (NIMH) 117
6.5.3 COMPARISONS OF NICKEL BASED BATTERIES 118
6.6 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES 119
6.6.1 CONSTRUCTION OF LITHIUM ION BATTERY 119
6.6.2 COMPARISONS OF LITHIUM BASED BATTERIES 120
6.7 SUPER-CAPACITOR BATTERY 121
6.8 COMPARISONS OF MAJOR TYPES OF BATTERIES 122
6.9 CALCULATING BATTERY BANK SIZE 122
6.9.1 EXAMPLE 1 123
6.9.2 EXAMPLE 2 124
6.9.3 EXAMPLE 3 124
6.9.4 EXAMPLE 4 124
6.9.5 EXAMPLE 5 125
6.10 SELECTION PARAMETERS OF A BATTERY 125
6.11 OPERATION AND INSTALLATION OF A BATTERY 126
6.12 BATTERY STANDARDS 128
6.12.1 IEC 61427 – SECONDARY CELLS AND BATTERIES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY 128
6.12.2 IEEE 937/1013 – RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LEAD-ACID BATTERIES FOR PV SYSTEMS 129
6.12.3 IEEE 1361– GUIDE FOR SELECTING, CHARGING, TESTING, AND EVALUATING LEAD-ACID BATTERIES USED IN PV (PV) SYSTEMS 129

7 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-I: CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS, SYSTEM SELECTION, ECONOMICS AND SALES 130

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM DESIGN STAGES 130

7.2 CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS AND CHALLENGES 131
7.3 SYSTEM SELECTION AND ECONOMICS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS 131
7.3.1 SELECTION OF TYPE OF SYSTEM 132
7.3.2 ECONOMICS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM 133
7.3.3 PAYBACK PERIOD, NET PRESENT VALUE AND INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN 134
7.3.4 NET METERING AND STATE INCENTIVES 137
7.3.5 COST CALCULATIONS EXAMPLES 138
7.3.6 LEVELIZED COST OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS (LCOE) 142
7.4 PROJECT SCOPE OF WORK AND AGREEMENT 142
7.5 ESTIMATING USER LOAD REQUIREMENTS 143
7.6 SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS 146
7.7 REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL OR TENDER DOCUMENT 149
7.7.1 SAMPLE RFP 150

8 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-II: SITE SURVEY AND PLANNING 153

8.1 SIT SURVEY 153

8.1.1 SITE DATA COLLECTION FOR PLANNING 153
8.1.2 UTILITY INTERCONNECTION 154
8.1.3 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR SITE SURVEY 154
8.1.4 SAFETY AND HAZARD PREVENTION 154
8.2 SHADOW TYPES 155
8.2.1 TEMPORARY SHADOWING 155
8.2.2 SHADING DUE TO LOCATION 155
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8.2.3 SELF-SHADING 156
8.3 SHADING ANALYSIS 156
8.3.1 SHADING ANALYSIS TOOLS 157
8.3.2 AREA OF THE PV ARRAY AND INTER-ROW DISTANCE 158
8.3.3 WINDOW OF OBSTRUCTION AND REDUCTION IN YIELD 163
8.3.4 DUST AND SOILING 164
8.4 PV ARRAY LOCATION AND ORIENTATION 165
8.4.1 LOCATION CONSIDERATIONS 165
8.4.2 PV ARRAY TILT AND ORIENTATION 166
8.4.3 OTHER LOCATIONS 168
8.5 OPTIMIZED STRING CONNECTION 168
8.6 EXISTING ELECTRICAL AND INTERCONNECTION EQUIPMENT 170

9 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE-III: ARRAY MOUNTING AND MECHANICAL DESIGN 172

9.1 INTRODUCTION 172

9.2 FACTORS IN PV ARRAY MOUNTING DESIGN 172
9.2.1 ELECTRICAL CONFIGURATIONS 173
9.2.2 PV MODULE CHARACTERISTICS 173
9.2.3 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT 173
9.2.4 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS 174
9.2.5 ACCESSIBILITY 174
9.2.6 THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS 174
9.2.7 ARRAY AESTHETICS 175
9.3 PV ARRAY MOUNTING LOCATIONS 176
9.3.1 ROOF TOP 176
9.3.2 GROUND-MOUNTED 176
9.3.3 OTHER LOCATIONS 176
9.4 MOUNTING STRUCTURE MATERIAL AND TYPES 177
9.4.1 GALVANIZED IRON 177
9.4.2 MILD STEEL 177
9.4.3 ALUMINUM 177
9.5 ROOFING STRUCTURE BASICS 177
9.5.1 ROOF SHAPES 178
9.5.2 PITCHED ROOF STRUCTURE ELEMENTS 178
9.5.3 PITCHED ROOF SKINS AND LAYERS 179
9.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN AND TECHNIQUES 179
9.6.1 PITCHED ROOF RACK MOUNTING 179
9.6.2 ESTIMATING PV SUPPORT MATERIAL FOR ROOF RACK MOUNTING 181
9.6.3 BALLASTED MOUNTING SYSTEMS ON COMMERCIAL BUILDING 183
9.6.4 POLE MOUNTING 184
9.6.5 GROUND MOUNTED SYSTEM 185
9.6.6 TRACKING SYSTEM 186
9.6.7 ARRANGING MODULES 186
9.6.8 WIND LOADING ANALYSIS 187
9.6.9 SELECTING FASTENERS OR SCREWS 190
9.6.10 BALANCE OF SYSTEM LOCATIONS 193
9.7 APPLICABLE CODES FOR INSTALLATION 194
9.7.1 INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE AND RESIDENTIAL CODE 194
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9.7.2 INTERNATIONAL FIRE CODE 194

10 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE IV - SOLAR PV SYSTEM SELECTION, SIZING AND CALCULATIONS 197

10.1 INTRODUCTION 197

10.2 PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION CONCEPTS AND INVERTER SELECTION 198
10.3 LOAD AND CRITICAL DESIGN ANALYSIS 200
10.4 EQUIPMENT KEY DESIGN CONCEPTS AND PARAMETERS 203
10.5 SYSTEM LOSSES 205
10.6 SYSTEM SIZING CALCULATIONS: ON-GRID SYSTEM 206
10.6.1 PV ARRAY AND STRING SIZING 210
10.6.2 INVERTER SIZING 213
10.7 SYSTEM SIZING CALCULATIONS: OFF-GRID SYSTEM WITH BATTERY BACKUP 214
10.7.1 PV ARRAY, STRING AND INVERTER SIZING 214
10.7.2 BATTERY BANK SIZING 216
10.8 SPECIFICATIONS OF EQUIPMENT AND HOURLY CALCULATIONS 218

11 SYSTEM DESIGN STAGE–V: ELECTRICAL DESIGN, COMPONENTS AND NEC 220

11.1 INTRODUCTION 220

11.2 NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE OVERVIEW 220
11.3 PV SYSTEM DEFINITIONS: NEC 2020 ARTICLE 690.2 223
11.4 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS: NEC ARTICLE 690.4/690.6 225
11.5 VOLTAGE REQUIREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS: NEC ARTICLE 690.7 226
11.5.1 MAXIMUM PV CIRCUIT VOLTAGE 226
11.5.2 CALCULATING MAXIMUM STRING VOLTAGE AND NUMBER OF MODULES 227
11.5.3 CALCULATING MINIMUM STRING VOLTAGE AND NUMBER OF MODULES 229
11.5.4 DC-DC CONVERTER AND BIPOLAR CIRCUITS 230
11.6 CIRCUIT SIZING AND CALCULATIONS: NEC ARTICLE 690.8 231
11.6.1 MAXIMUM CURRENT: 690.8(A) 231
11.6.2 CONDUCTOR SIZING: 690.8(B) 233
11.6.3 CONDUCTOR VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS 239
11.7 OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION: NEC ARTICLE 690.9 242
11.7.1 CIRCUITS AND EQUIPMENT: 690.9(A) 242
11.7.2 OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE RATING: 690.9(B) 248
11.7.3 SINGLE OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION DEVICE FOR CIRCUITS: 690.9(C) 250
11.8 STANDALONE SYSTEM: NEC ARTICLE 690.10 250
11.9 ARC-FAULT PROTECTION FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEMS: NEC ARTICLE 690.11 251
11.10 RAPID SHUTDOWN OF PV SYSTEMS ON BUILDING: NEC ARTICLE 690.12 252
11.11 DISCONNECTING MEANS OR DISCONNECT SWITCHES 256
11.11.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM DISCONNECTING MEANS: NEC ARTICLE 690.13 256
11.11.2 DISCONNECTING MEANS FOR ISOLATING PV EQUIPMENT: NEC ARTICLE 690.15 259
11.12 WIRING METHODS: NEC ARTICLE 690.31 261
11.12.1 WIRING SYSTEMS: 690.31(A) 261
11.12.2 IDENTIFICATION AND GROUPING: 690.31(B) 262
11.12.3 CABLES: 690.31(C) 263
11.12.4 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS ON OR IN BUILDING: 690.31(D) 265
11.12.5 BIPOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM: 690.31(E) 266
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11.13 COMPONENT INTERCONNECTIONS AND MATING CONNECTORS 267
11.13.1 COMPONENT INTERCONNECTIONS: 690.32 267
11.13.2 MATING CONNECTORS: 690.33 267
11.14 GROUNDING & BONDING 268
11.14.1 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 268
11.14.2 GROUNDING AND BONDING: NEC 240 275
11.14.3 SYSTEM GROUNDING: PART V NEC 690.41 285
11.14.4 SUMMARY GROUNDING AND BONDING 292
11.15 MARKING: NEC 690 PART VI 294
11.16 LARGE SCALE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS: NEC 691 295
11.16.1 DEFINITIONS: NEC 691.1 295
11.16.2 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LARGE SCALE PHOTOVOLTAIC STATIONS: NEC 691.4 296
11.16.3 EQUIPMENT: NEC 691.5 296
11.16.4 ENGINEERING DESIGN: NEC 691.6 296
11.16.5 CONFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTION TO ENGINEERING DESIGN: NEC 691.7 297
11.16.6 DIRECT CURRENT OPERATING VOLTAGE: NEC 691.8 297
11.16.7 DISCONNECTING MEANS FOR ISOLATING PV EQUIPMENT: NEC 691.9 297
11.16.8 ARC-FAULT MITIGATION: NEC 691.10 297
11.16.9 FENCE BONDING AND GROUNDING: NEC 691.11 297
11.17 A NOTE ON UNDERWRITER’S LABORATORY 298

12 UTILITY INTERCONNECTION, ENERGY STORAGES AND STANDALONE WIRING ACCORDING TO NEC 299

12.1 INTRODUCTION 299

12.1.1 POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION 299
12.1.2 INTRODUCTION TO INTERCONNECTION CONCERNS AND SPECIAL CONDITIONS OF NEC 705 300
12.1.3 INTERCONNECTION CODES AND STANDARDS: IEEE1547 301
12.2 INTERCONNECTED ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION SOURCES: NEC 705 303
12.2.1 SCOPE: NEC 705.1 303
12.2.2 DEFINITIONS: NEC 705.2 303
12.2.3 EQUIPMENT APPROVAL: NEC 705.6 303
12.2.4 SYSTEM INSTALLATION: NEC 705.8 304
12.2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF POWER SOURCES: NEC 705.10 304
12.2.6 SUPPLY SIDE SOURCE CONNECTIONS: NEC 705.11 304
12.2.7 LOAD SIDE SOURCE CONNECTIONS: NEC 705.12 307
12.2.8 POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS (PCS): NEC 705.13 313
12.2.9 GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION: NEC 705.32 313
12.2.10 LOSS OF PRIMARY SOURCE OR UTILITY POWER: NEC 705.40 313
12.2.11 UNBALANCED INTERCONNECTIONS: NEC 705.45 313
12.3 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (ESS): NEC 706 314
12.4 STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS: NEC 710 315

13 ANNEXURE A: NABCEP MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 317

13.1 INTRODUCTION 317

13.2 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 1 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ASSOCIATE LEVEL 317
13.3 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 1 330
13.4 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 2 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ASSOCIATE LEVEL 335
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13.5 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 2 347
13.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS SET 3 (1 – 70) – NABCEP ADVANCE LEVEL 354
13.7 ANSWERS WITH BRIEF EXPLANATION OF SAMPLE QUESTION SET 3 366

14 ANNEXURE B: IMPORTANT EQUATIONS 372

14.1 BASIC ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY 372

14.2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS 372
14.3 COST AND FINANCIALS 374

15 ANNEXURE C: BIBLIOGRAPHY 375

16 ANNEXURE D: LIST OF FIGURES 376

17 ANNEXURE E: INDEX 383

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Copyright © 2023 Asif A. Khokher (asif.khokher@innovasyses.com)
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior
written permission of the publisher, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject
matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that neither the author nor the publisher is engaged in
rendering legal, investment, accounting or other professional services. While the publisher and author
have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or
extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein
may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional when appropriate. Neither
the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages,
including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, personal, or other damages.
Book Cover and Illustrations by Author
1st Edition, Year of Publication: 2023

x
 Online Courses on Solar PV Systems by the Author

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xi
Preface
In the face of mounting environmental challenges and the ever-increasing demand for energy, the world finds itself
at a critical juncture. The urgent need to transition towards sustainable energy solutions has never been more
apparent. The need of this book originates from the mounting requirement to educate and train the individual and
professionals for the renewable sector, especially in Solar Photovoltaic Systems.
This book embarks on a captivating exploration of the transformative power of solar photovoltaics. It unravels the
particulars of harnessing sunlight to generate electricity and examines how this remarkable technology is
revolutionizing the global energy landscape. As solar photovoltaics continue their exponential growth and
increasingly become a mainstay in the global energy mix, it is vital to comprehend the underlying principles and
breakthroughs that make this technology so compelling. Throughout these pages, we will embark on a voyage of
discovery, uncovering the remarkable concepts and engineering marvels that underpin photovoltaic cells, modules,
and arrays.
This book is intended for those who are willing to build foundational and professional knowledge of Solar PV Systems
leading to System Designing in reference to National Electric Code. Readers may include but not limited to beginners,
professionals, instructors, project managers, associations, institutes or those individuals who are preparing for
NABCEP Exams.
We will delve into the practical aspects of deploying solar photovoltaics, especially on rooftops, which are integrated
into our urban landscapes. Starting from understanding the theory of Sun Energy, Photovoltaic Modules, Charge
Controllers, Inverters and Batteries, chapters later in this book finally lead to various stages of System Designing
which includes Initial planning, Proposals, Financial aspects, Site Surveying, On-Grid/Off-Grid Sizing calculations, and
finally, design of electrical components in accordance with the National Electric Code (2020/2023). Principles of
electrical design will enable us to optimize performance and maximize the safety aspects of this clean and
inexhaustible energy resource. This book comes with comprehensive calculation examples which are necessary for
any working professional.
Moreover, this book has been designed to prepare an individual willing to take further challenge of industry exams
or certificates like NABCEP. Hence, more than 200 sample questions with solutions have also been incorporated in
the book to build the confidence in the preparation of such exams.
As we journey through the chapters of this book, it is my hope that readers will not only gain a comprehensive
understanding of solar photovoltaics but also be inspired to become advocates for renewable energy in their own
right. Whether you are a student, a professional, an entrepreneur, or simply an environmentally-conscious individual,
your role in championing solar power's cause is paramount.
It is my sincere hope that this book not only informs but also inspires readers to takeaction. Whether you are an
industry professional, a student, a policymaker, or a concerned individual, the power to make a difference lies within
each of us. We must come together to accelerate the adoption of renewable energy solutions and propel our world
towards a sustainable and thriving future.
In conclusion, let this book be a guiding light in your quest to unlock the potential of solar photovoltaics and embrace
the profound changes it can bring to our world. Together, we can harness the boundless power of the sun and
illuminate a brighter, cleaner, and more sustainable future for generations to come.

xii
Annexure - C List of Figures

15 Annexure C: Bibliography

a) Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering by Antonio and Steven, 2 nd Edition 2011
b) Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems by Germen Energy Society DGS LV Berlin BRB, 2008
c) Photovoltaics - Fundamentals, Technology and Practice by Konrad Mertens, 1st Edition 2014
d) Principles of Solar Engineering by Yogi Goswami, 3rd Edition 2015
e) Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics – Fundamental and Applications by Tom Markvert & Luis Castaner
f) Photovoltaics Systems Engineering by Roger Messenger & Jerry Venter, 2nd Edition
g) PV and NEC by Sean White & Bill Brooks, 2nd Edition
h) Photovoltaic Systems by James Dunlop, 3rd Edition
i) NABCEP Certification Guide 2017 by NABCEP, America
j) National Electrical Code 2020 & 2023 by National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
k) Analysis of factors affecting efficiency of inverters: Case study grid-connected PV systems in lower northern
region of Thailand’ by Nipon Ketjoy, Wisut Chamsard and Pornthip Mensin in 2021
l) Metal oxides in supercapacitors by LeiZhou, XiangLiu, YusongZhu, YupingWu, Teunisvan Ree, 2018
m) Economics of solar PV systems by University of Nebraska
n) Guide to the Installation of Photovoltaic Systems by Electrical Contractors Association (UK)
o) Geotechnical Analysis And PV Foundation Design by By Bob Donaldson and David Brearley
p) Standards and Requirements for Solar Equipment, Installation, and Licensing and Certification - A Guide for
States and Municipalities by Beren Argetsinger, Keyes & Fox LLP • Benjamin Inskeep, EQ Research LLC
q) Understanding the Cal Fire: Solar PV Installation Guide by Bill Brooks
r) Mounting Your Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System by Dr. Ed Franklin
s) Wind Load by by Colleen O’Brien and David Banks published in SolarPro Magazine June 2012
t) Lag Screws In Residential PV Installations by By Mark Shelly SolarPro Magazine

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Annexure - C List of Figures

16 Annexure D: List of Figures

Figure 1-1 Solar Plant 1

Figure 1-2 Alexendra Edmond 2
Figure 1-3 Experiment by Alexendra 3
Figure 1-4 Charles Fritts 3
Figure 1-5 Daryl, Calvin and Gerald 3
Figure 1-6 Solar Energy Installed Map 4
Figure 1-7 Installed Solar Energy Capacity 4
Figure 1-8 PV Industry Development 1990 - 2010 5
Figure 1-9 Industry Stakeholders 7
Figure 1-10 World Energy Sources (Source: iea.org) 8
Figure 1-11 Authorities Having Jurisdiction 8
Figure 1-12 Solar Concentrator 9
Figure 1-13 Research Laboratory 9
Figure 1-14 Parabolic Dish Solar Concentrator 10
Figure 1-15 Flat Plate Collector 10
Figure 1-16 Solar Thermal Collector Basic Diagram 10
Figure 1-17 Solar Evacuated Tube Collector 11
Figure 2-1 The Sun 12
Figure 2-2 Distance between Sun and Earth 12
Figure 2-3 Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum (Source: NREL) 13
Figure 2-4 Spectrum Outside and Inside Atmosphere (Source: NREL) 14
Figure 2-5 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation during time of the year (Source: NREL) 15
Figure 2-6 Attenuation of the Solar Radiation 15
Figure 2-7 Air Mass depiction 16
Figure 2-8 Explanation of various Air Mass 16
Figure 2-9 Relationship between Wavelength and Spectral Power Density (Source: NREL) 17
Figure 2-10 Peak Sun Hours 18
Figure 2-11 Solar Irradiance 18
Figure 2-12 Global Horizontal Radiation Data for a location 19
Figure 2-13 Solar Irradiance Annual Average Data for United States Map 21
Figure 2-14 Global Horizontal Irradiation Map for World 22
Figure 2-15 Solar Radiation Hourly Data for Houston in csv format (Source PVGIS) 23
Figure 2-16 Typical Pyranometer 24
Figure 2-17 Pyranometer with shadowing device 24
Figure 2-18 Spectral Response of different Pyranometers (Source: NREL) 24
Figure 2-19 Typical Pyrheliometer 25
Figure 2-20 Irradiance Meter 25
Figure 2-21 Spectrum and Photon Flux 26
Figure 2-22 Earth Elliptical Orbit 26
Figure 2-23 The Earth 27
Figure 2-24 Summer and Winter Solistice 27

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Annexure - C List of Figures

Figure 2-25 Sun Declination 28

Figure 2-26 Sun Declination at Equator and Tropic of Cancer 28
Figure 2-27 Sun Trajectory and Local Time 28
Figure 2-28 UTC Standard Time Map 29
Figure 2-29 Equation of Time Graph 30
Figure 2-30 Sun Zenith, Altitude and Azimuth Angles 30
Figure 2-31 Sun Path Chart 31
Figure 2-32 Solar Window 31
Figure 2-33 Array Tilt Angle 32
Figure 2-34 Array Azimuth Angle 32
Figure 2-35 Effect of Panel Orientation on Performance (Source: NREL) 33
Figure 2-36 Magnetic Declination 34
Figure 2-37 Magnetic Declination in United States 34
Figure 2-38 Electrical Circuit 35
Figure 2-39 Ohm Law Formula Wheel 35
Figure 3-1 The Atom 36
Figure 3-2 Emission and Absorption of Light in Atom 37
Figure 3-5 Conductor Atoms 37
Figure 3-5 Insulator Atoms 37
Figure 3-5 Semiconductor Atoms 37
Figure 3-6 Energy Bands of Metals 38
Figure 3-7 Silicon Atomic Structure in 3-D 39
Figure 3-9 Silicon Atomic Structure in 2-D 39
Figure 3-9 Free Electrons in Silicon 39
Figure 3-10 n-Doping 39
Figure 3-11 Energy Band of n-Doped Silicon 40
Figure 3-12 Photovoltaic Effect 40
Figure 3-13 p-n Junction with Space Charge Region 41
Figure 3-14 p-n Junction 41
Figure 3-15 p and n side short-circuited 41
Figure 3-17 Forward Biased p-n Junction 42
Figure 3-17 Forward Bias-Voltage applied to p-n Junction 42
Figure 3-18 p-n Junction illuminated by Light 42
Figure 3-19 I-V Characteristics of p-n Junction 43
Figure 3-20 Basic Structure of a Solar Cell 43
Figure 3-23 Crystalline silicon 44
Figure 3-23 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Cell 44
Figure 3-23 Thin Film Module 44
Figure 3-24 Metallurgical Grade Silicon 44
Figure 3-25 Multicrystalline Ingots 44
Figure 3-26 Silicon Crystal Boules 45
Figure 3-27 Fabrication steps of Solar Cell 45
Figure 3-28 Strip lining of the Solar Cell 45
Figure 3-29 Assembly of a Solar Module 45
Figure 3-30 Junction Box behind the Solar Module 46
Figure 3-32 I-V Curves of PV Module 46
Figure 3-32 I-V Curves for different Irradiance Levels with Vmpp changing slightly 46
Figure 3-33 Load Lines of Constant Resistance 47
Figure 3-34 Response due to changing Irradiance 48
Figure 3-35 Effect of Temperature on PV Module 49
Figure 3-36 Data Sheet of a PV Module 50
Figure 3-37 PV Modules connected in Series 51
Figure 3-38 PV String with Inverter 51
Figure 3-39 Table 690.7 of NEC 52
Figure 3-40 PV Modules connected in Parallel 54
Figure 3-41 PV Modules connected in Series 54
Figure 3-42 Two similar PV Modules connected in series 55

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Figure 3-43 Two dissimilar PV Modules connected in series 55

Figure 3-44 Two similar PV Modules connected in Parallel 55
Figure 3-45 Two dissimilar PV Modules connected in Parallel 56
Figure 3-46 Voltage Ranges for String and Inverter 56
Figure 3-48 One Cell shaded of a PV Module 57
Figure 3-48 Bypass Diode across Cell 57
Figure 3-49 PV Module with Bypass Diodes 57
Figure 3-50 PV Label 58
Figure 3-51 PV Standards (Source: SEIA) 59
Figure 4-1 Solar Charge Controller 61
Figure 4-2 Multi-Stage Battery Charging 62
Figure 4-3 Shunt-Regulated Charge Controller 64
Figure 4-4 Series Regulated Charge Controller 65
Figure 4-5 Pulse Modulation 66
Figure 4-6 MPPT Charge Controller 66
Figure 4-7 Diversion Charge Controller 67
Figure 4-8 Charge Controller Voltage Setpoints 68
Figure 4-9 Charge Controller with Temperature Sensor 69
Figure 4-10 Hysteresis Ripples in Multistage Charging 70
Figure 4-11 Typical internal Block Diagram of a Charge Controller (Source: A Manufacturer Data Sheet) 71
Figure 4-12 Charge Controller Installation - Not Allowed 71
Figure 4-13 Voltage Drop due to Long Cables 72
Figure 4-14 Charge Controller inside an Electrical Box 72
Figure 5-1 DC to AC Conversion 73
Figure 5-2 Inverter Block Diagram 74
Figure 5-3 Sinusoidal Waveform 75
Figure 5-4 AC Transmission and Distribution power to consumers 75
Figure 5-5 Vpeak and Vrms 76
Figure 5-6 AC Waveforms 76
Figure 5-7 Making of Square Wave from Since Waves 77
Figure 5-8 -Phase Y and Delta Configuration 77
Figure 5-9 Typical 3-Phase Distribution System 78
Figure 5-10 Voltage Transients 79
Figure 5-11 Balanced and Unbalanced Voltages 79
Figure 5-12 Distorted Waveform 80
Figure 5-13 Switching Control Power Electronics 81
Figure 5-14 DC-DC Boost Converter 83
Figure 5-15 DC-DC Buck Converter 83
Figure 5-16 Buck-Boost Converter 83
Figure 5-17 H-Bridge Conceptual Circuit 84
Figure 5-18 Push-Pull Inverter 84
Figure 5-19 Sine Wave generated from PWM 85
Figure 5-20 NEC 690.2 Stand-Alone System Definition (Source: NEC 2020) 86
Figure 5-21 A practical Stand-Alone PV System with Stand-Alone Inverter 86
Figure 5-22 NEC 690.2 Interactive System Definition (Source: NEC 2020) 87
Figure 5-23 A practical Interactive PV System with Interactive Inverter 87
Figure 5-24 String Inverters 88
Figure 5-25 Two String Inverters Connected in Parallel in Electrical Panel 88
Figure 5-26 One String Inverter with two MPPT Inputs 89
Figure 5-27 Utility Scale Inverter 89
Figure 5-28 Micro-Inverter 90
Figure 5-29 Each Micro-Inverter connected to an individual PV Panel and all connected in Parallel 90
Figure 5-30 NEC Definition of Multimode Inverter (Source: NEC 2020) 90
Figure 5-31 Practical Multimode PV System with Multimode Inverter 91
Figure 5-32 Reduced Power due to High Temperatures 92
Figure 5-33 Input Voltage Range for an Inverter 93
Figure 5-34 Pump Solar Inverter 94

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Annexure - C List of Figures

Figure 5-35 Power Output vs Efficiency 95

Figure 5-36 Two String Inverters connected in Parallel 96
Figure 5-37 Inverter with surplus power with unbalanced load condition 97
Figure 5-38 3-Phase Inverter with unbalanced Load with balanced power from Grid 97
Figure 5-39 Front Touch Screen Display on an Inverter 98
Figure 5-40 UL1741 Labeling (Source: NEC 2020) 98
Figure 5-41 FCC Label or Marking (Source: IEC) 100
Figure 5-42 Inverter Efficiency vs Irradiance 101
Figure 5-43 Inverter Efficiency vs PV Input Voltage 101
Figure 6-1 Batteries 102
Figure 6-2 Lead-Acid Battery Structure 103
Figure 6-3 Components of a Lead-Acid Battery 103
Figure 6-4 Lead Acid Battery (Charged) 103
Figure 6-5 Load connected across Lead-Acid Battery 104
Figure 6-6 Lead-Acid Battery Charging 104
Figure 6-7 Stratification at the bottom of the battery 105
Figure 6-8 Sulfation on Battery 106
Figure 6-9 Voltage-Temperature Curve of Lead-Acid Battery 107
Figure 6-10 Temperature effect on Capacity of a Lead-Acid Battery 108
Figure 6-11 Battery Voltage vs Discharge 108
Figure 6-12 Voltage Curve of Lead-Acid Battery 109
Figure 6-13 Battery Analyzer 110
Figure 6-15 Batteries Connections - Series or Parallel 111
Figure 6-14 Large Energy Storage System with BMS 111
Figure 6-16 Primary Batteries 112
Figure 6-17 Specific Energy Densities of various Batteries 113
Figure 6-18 Open-Vent and Maintenance Free Lead Acid Batteries 114
Figure 6-19 Recombination Cap 114
Figure 6-20 Sealed AGM Lead Acid Battery 115
Figure 6-21 Structure of Nickel based Battery 116
Figure 6-22 Lithium-Ion Battery 119
Figure 6-23 Super Capacitor 121
Figure 6-24 Comparisons of various Batteries (Source: batteryuniversity.cm) 122
Figure 6-25 Stand-Alone PV System 123
Figure 6-26 Batteries in Parallel to make 48 V for PV System 123
Figure 6-27 Top View of Batteries connected in parallel 127
Figure 6-28 General Flow Chart to Install the Batteries (Source: A Manufacturer Datasheet) 128
Figure 7-1 Design Resources 131
Figure 7-2 Median capital expenditure (CapEx) for region by year of operation, in 2021 $/W-ac 134
Figure 7-3 Calculation of NPV and IRR 139
Figure 7-4 Detailed Cost Calculations for NPV and IRR 140
Figure 7-5 Courtesy Trina: Degradation Factor of PV Module 141
Figure 7-6 NPV and IRR calculation incorporating degradation factor of PV modules 141
Figure 7-7 Pre-Discounted and Discounted NPV of Net Cash Flow (Savings) 142
Figure 7-8 Monthly Consumption and Production Chart of OnGrid Residential Solar PV System 144
Figure 7-9 Solar Inverter Pump Drive 146
Figure 7-10 End-User-Consultant-Contractor Framework 146
Figure 7-11 Typical Single Line Diagram of Solar PV System – Sample 149
Figure 8-1 Site Survey Tools 154
Figure 8-2 Temporary Shading on Solar Modules 155
Figure 8-3 Shading due to front row of Modules 156
Figure 8-4 Shading due to Building and Trees 157
Figure 8-5 Solar Path Finder 157
Figure 8-6 Area occupied by the PV Module 158
Figure 8-7 Solar PV Array in multiple Rows 159
Figure 8-8 Effect of Shading at lowest Sun Altitude 160
Figure 8-9 Sun lowest Altitude Angle for given Inter-Row Distance 161

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Figure 8-10 Sun Path Chart for Latitude 31 deg 162

Figure 8-11Separation Factor for Inter-Rows 162
Figure 8-12 Obstruction in front of the PV Array 163
Figure 8-13 Parameters of Obstruction 164
Figure 8-14 Shadow of tree in Sun Path Chart 164
Figure 8-15 PV Array Orientation 166
Figure 8-16 Contour Chart for Florida 167
Figure 8-17 Carport PV Shades 168
Figure 8-18 Floating PV 168
Figure 8-19 PV Modules with different Orientation 169
Figure 8-20 String connected in Parallel to an Inverter 169
Figure 8-21 Inverter with multiple MPPT Inputs 170
Figure 8-22 Dimension Layout of a Residential Dwelling 171
Figure 9-1 Additive Photovoltaic 172
Figure 9-2 BIPV 172
Figure 9-3 PV Modules arranged in Rows 173
Figure 9-4 Evaluating the existing Roof Structure 173
Figure 9-5 Geotech Investigations 174
Figure 9-6 Accessibility to PV Array 174
Figure 9-7 Damaged PV Array due to Over-Heating 175
Figure 9-8 Roofing Structure 175
Figure 9-9 PV System Layout on Roof Top 175
Figure 9-10 BIPV Solar PV System 175
Figure 9-11 Roof Top Mounting 176
Figure 9-12 PV Installation at Car Parking and Water Surface 176
Figure 9-13 Galvanized PV Structure 177
Figure 9-14 Mild Steel PV Structure 177
Figure 9-15 Aluminium PV Structure 177
Figure 9-16 Roof Components 178
Figure 9-17 Roof Skins and Layers 179
Figure 9-18 Components of PV Installation 182
Figure 9-19 Various Components of Installation 182
Figure 9-20 Rail Structure underneath the PV Modules 182
Figure 9-21 Ballasted Mounted System 184
Figure 9-22 Unirac Mounting System 184
Figure 9-23 Pole Mounted PV System 184
Figure 9-24 Ground-Mounted PV System 185
Figure 9-25 PV System with One-Axis Tracking 186
Figure 9-26 Wind Loading on PV Modules 187
Figure 9-27 Damage PV System due to Wind Forces 187
Figure 9-28 Simulation of Wind Forces 189
Figure 9-29 Useable Area for PV System on Roof Top 190
Figure 9-30 Force exerted on PV Module vs Wind Force 190
Figure 9-31 Lag Screws (Source: SolarPro Magazine Article “Lag Screws” by Shelly 190
Figure 9-32 Variety of Lag Screws 191
Figure 9-33 Different Lengths of Lag Screws 191
Figure 9-34 Lag Screws installed close to the Wood Edge 191
Figure 9-35 Lag Screws using the Flashings 192
Figure 9-36 Lag Screw in Example 1 192
Figure 9-37 International Fire Code adoption by States 195
Figure 9-38 Solar Roof Pathways (Source: California Solar + Storage Association) 196
Figure 10-1 Energy Flow and System Sizing Directions 197
Figure 10-2 Master-Slave Central Inverter Configuration 198
Figure 10-3 Single Line representation of three source circuits connected in parallel in a Combiner 199
Figure 10-4 String Inverter Configuration 199
Figure 10-5 System Concept - Mismatch Losses 205
Figure 10-6 On-Grid or Interactive Solar PV System 206

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Figure 10-7 PV System Sizing -Going Backward 211

Figure 10-8 Solar Irradiance Hourly Data from PVGIS 219
Figure 11-1 NEC 2020 221
Figure 11-2 Solar PV System and Scope of Article 690. (First Figure is single line representation as drawn in NEC 2020) 222
Figure 11-3 Bipolar Circuit 223
Figure 11-4 PV Source and Output Circuit (Single Line Diagram) 227
Figure 11-5 NEC 690.7 Correction Factor Table 228
Figure 11-6 Maximum Current in PV Source or Output Circuit (Single Line Diagram) 231
Figure 11-7 NEC690.8A(2): Maximum Current in presence of an Electronic Equipment (Single Line Diagram) 233
Figure 11-8 Table 310.16 Size of the Conductor 234
Figure 11-9 Table 310.15B (1) of NEC 235
Figure 11-10 Table 310.15(C)(1): No. of Conductors inside Conduit 236
Figure 11-11 Output Circuit of two PV Strings running in Conduit 236
Figure 11-12 Two PV Strings with common return conductor 238
Figure 11-13 Sizing of the Inter-connection Cables of PV Source Circuits 238
Figure 11-14 Fault scenario and Inter-Connection Conductor Sizing 239
Figure 11-15 Typical Single Diagram of Residential Solar PV System 240
Figure 11-16 PV System Voltage: Open Circuit to Maximum Point 241
Figure 11-17 DC Source and Output Circuits 243
Figure 11-18 Single String PV Circuit 243
Figure 11-19 PV Circuit with Other Source 244
Figure 11-20 PV String with Electronic Converter and Other Energy Source 245
Figure 11-21 Other Source connected to the PV String with Dc-to-DC converter 246
Figure 11-22 Multiple PV Strings connected in parallel through Combiner 246
Figure 11-23 Other Energy Sources connected to the PV Strings 247
Figure 11-24 Standard OCPD Sizes as per NEC 240.6(A) 249
Figure 11-25 Ampere Ratings of the Small Conductors as per NEC 240.4(D) 249
Figure 11-26 Rapid Shutdown Boundaries and Voltage 253
Figure 11-27 Rapid Shutdown Function implementation 254
Figure 11-28 RPS Initiation Device 255
Figure 11-29 Interactive System on Rooftop of a Building 257
Figure 11-30 PV System Disconnect Labels or Markings 258
Figure 11-31 Table 690.31 (A) (a) and (b) 262
Figure 11-32 Table 690.31(C)(4) of NEC 265
Figure 11-33 Warning Label for PV Power Source 266
Figure 11-34 Warning Label for Disconnecting of the Grounded Conductor 266
Figure 11-35 MC-4 Latching Connectors 267
Figure 11-36 Reasons of Fault in PV Systems 267
Figure 11-37 Fault in a Un-Grounded System 269
Figure 11-38 Fault in a System with a Grounding Cable 270
Figure 11-39 Fault in a Solidly Grounded System 271
Figure 11-40 Solidly Grounded System 272
Figure 11-41 Fault in a Solidly Grounded System 272
Figure 11-42 Solidly Grounded System with Main Bonding Jumper 273
Figure 11-43 Fault in the Solidly Grounded System with MBJ 273
Figure 11-44 Solidly Grounded System with no effective ground fault current path 274
Figure 11-45 Section of Grounding and Bonding in NEC (Courtesy NEC) 275
Figure 11-46 Earth Shells 276
Figure 11-47 Ungrounded System 277
Figure 11-48 Objectionable Current in System Grounding 277
Figure 11-49 Grounding Connectors 278
Figure 11-50 Underground Concrete-Encased Electrode 278
Figure 11-51 Underground Water Pipe as Grounding Electrode 279
Figure 11-52 Grounding Rod 280
Figure 11-53 Common and Multiple GEC for different Building Disconnects 282
Figure 11-54 Table 250.66 Size of GEC 283
Figure 11-55 Table 250.122 Sizing the EGC 285

381
Annexure – E Index

String Connection, 168, 213, 216 Three Stage Charging, 105

String Inverter, 88, 322, 343 Three-Phase Power, 77
String Sizing, 210, 212, 215 Tilt Angle, 16, 33
Structural Loads, 180 Tools, 154, 157, 342
Structural Support, 173 Total Installed Cost of System, 134, 135, 374
Sulfation, 62, 106, 116 Tracking System, 186
Sun, 1, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 155, 157, Transients, 79
158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 202, 203, 209, 210, Transmission, 75, 299, 300, 322, 332
211, 218, 264, 318, 340, 341, 348, 349, 350, 351, 372 UL 1703, 60, 298
Sun Declination, 27, 34, 340 UL1703, 60, 194, 223, 339
Sun Path, 30, 31, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 318 UL2703, 290, 293
Sun Path Chart, 31, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 318 Unbalanced Interconnections, 313
Sun Path Charts, 30, 31, 157 Unbalanced Voltages, 79
Super-Capacitor Battery, 121 Underwriter’s Laboratory, 298
Supply Side Bonding Jumper, 272 Ungrounded PV Arrays, 288
Switching, Power Conditioning and Control, 80 Ungrounded System, 269
System Configuration, 198 Ungrounded Systems, 276
System Definitions, 223 User Load, 143, 200, 208
System Design, 130, 153, 172, 197, 220 Utility, 1, 2, 5, 9, 79, 80, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 99, 131, 133,
System Design Stage, 130, 153, 172, 197, 220 134, 135, 137, 143, 144, 146, 150, 154, 165, 167, 170,
System Design Stages, 130 193, 197, 198, 206, 230, 257, 258, 259, 277, 295, 296,
System Designer, 129, 130 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307, 313, 314, 315,
System Losses, 205, 210, 215 360
System Planning, 130 Utility Authorities, 9, 154, 206
System Selection, 130, 131, 197 Utility Interactive Inverter, 87
System Sizing, 130, 206, 210, 214, 215 Utility Interconnection, 5, 154, 299
System Sizing Calculations, 130 Voltage Drop, 71, 82, 206, 239, 242, 330
System Specifications, 146 Voltage Drop Calculations, 239
System Voltage, 5, 217, 294 Voltage Ratings, 92
Table 690.7, 52, 227, 228 Voltage Regulation, 63, 68, 69
Temperature Coefficient, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 92, 207, 211, Voltage Variations, 79
212, 227, 228, 229, 324, 328, 330, 333, 347, 373 Wafers, 45
Temperature Compensated Control, 63 Wind Loading, 187
Temperature Compensation, 69, 70 Window of Obstruction, 163, 164
Terrestrial, 15 Wiring Methods, 221, 222, 261, 265, 283
Test Conditions, 58, 373 Wiring Systems, 261
Testing, 60, 98, 129, 143, 147, 287, 298, 349 World Meteorological Organization, 25
Thermal Considerations, 174 Yield, 134, 156, 163, 164, 346, 354, 374
Thin-film PV, 44, 51 Zenith Angle, 16, 30, 318

387