Marriage & Family Review

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College Student Chaotically-Disengaged Family

Functioning, Depression, and Anxiety: The Indirect
Effects of Positive Family Communication and Self-
Compassion

Micha Blake Berryhill & Jessica Smith

To cite this article: Micha Blake Berryhill & Jessica Smith (2020): College Student
Chaotically-Disengaged Family Functioning, Depression, and Anxiety: The Indirect Effects
of Positive Family Communication and Self-Compassion, Marriage & Family Review, DOI:
10.1080/01494929.2020.1740373

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1740373

Published online: 23 Mar 2020.

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MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1740373

REVIEW

College Student Chaotically-Disengaged Family

Functioning, Depression, and Anxiety: The Indirect
Effects of Positive Family Communication and
Self-Compassion
Micha Blake Berryhill and Jessica Smith
Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Depression and anxiety are the most prominent mental health anxiety; college student;
concerns among college campuses. Thus, it is important to depression; family
examine factors linked with rising depression and anxiety functioning; self-compassion
symptoms. The purpose of this study is to examine the inter-
relationship between college student family functioning
(N ¼ 500), family communication, self-compassion, and anxiety
and depression levels, and whether gender moderates these
relationships. Specifically, we tested whether positive commu-
nication and self-compassion were significant indirect effects
in the relationship between levels of chaotically-disengaged
family functioning and the outcome variables of anxiety and
depression symptomology. Findings reveal that positive com-
munication and self-compassion were significant indirect
effects in the relationship between chaotically-disengaged
family functioning and depression and anxiety for females
only. Results may inform interventions for practitioners who
provide services.

Depression and anxiety are the most prominent mental health issues
among college students. The Center for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH,
2019) revealed that, of students seeking on-campus mental health services,
42.4% of students listed either anxiety or depression as their top concern
(anxiety ¼ 23.2%, depression ¼ 19.2%). Indeed, college students seeking
services for anxiety and depression have increased over the last several
years (CCMH, 2019). Declines in GPA, dropped classes, disruptions in
post-graduate work, decreased well-being and socio-emotional functioning,
increased suicidal ideation and attempts, and the onset of medical condi-
tions are all significantly associated with anxiety and depression (e.g.,
American College Health Association, 2017; Drum, Brownson, Burton
Denmark, & Smith, 2009; De Luca, Franklin, Yueqi, Johnson, & Brownson,

CONTACT Micha Blake Berryhill bberryhill@ches.ua.edu Department of Human Development and Family
Studies, The University of Alabama, Box 870160, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35401, USA.
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

2016; Eisenberg, Golberstein, & Hunt, 2009; Furr, Westefeld, McConnell, &
Jenkins, 2001; Kitzrow, 2003; Schonfeld et al., 1997).
The prevalence of depression and anxiety, and their potential effects,
necessitate the exploration of variables that contribute to their symptomol-
ogy. One important factor to consider is family relationships. Student rela-
tionships with family members can affect depression and anxiety levels (e.g.,
Beiter et al., 2015). For those seeking counseling services, family relation-
ships comprise nearly 31% of college students’ clinical concerns, following
only anxiety, depression, and stress (CCMH, 2019). Although family rela-
tionships can be an important determinant in symptomology, little is known
about the interrelationship between family functioning and the intrapsychic
components that influence college student anxiety and depression sympto-
mology. Utilizing the circumplex model of family systems (Olson, 2000,
2011), this study aims to test the link between chaotically-disengaged family
functioning, and anxiety and depression, and whether positive family com-
munication and self-compassion are indirect effects in these relationships.
Knowledge of these associations may inform interventions for reducing
depressive and anxiety symptomology levels among the college stu-
dent population.

Circumplex model
The circumplex model conceptualizes family functioning as containing the
two dimensions of family cohesion and family flexibility, with each ranging
on a continuum from balanced to unbalanced levels (Olson, 2000). Family
cohesion is the emotional bonding that family members have toward one
another (Olson, 2011). Families with a balanced level of cohesion exhibit a
successful balance of developmentally appropriate connectedness and indi-
viduality among family members. For college students in balanced families,
parents are able to support autonomy while also still displaying emotional
support. Unbalanced families, typified by extremely high or low levels of
cohesion, often experience more dysfunction (Olson & Gorall, 2003).
Families with high levels of cohesion possess enmeshment, or emotional
over-connection, between family members. Enmeshed families typically
have an acute dependence and emotional closeness within the family; loy-
alty to the family is expected. Because individuals are often too dependent
on one another, they seldom are capable of appropriate independence from
the family unit. Thus, they often have little outside individual friends or
interests. On the other end of the continuum, low family cohesion is
known as family disengagement. Disengaged families are marked by
“limited attachment or commitment to their family” (Olson & Gorall, 2006,
p. 518), with family members portraying high levels of autonomy and low
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 3

levels of warmth, affection, and interconnectedness toward each other.

There is minimal emotional engagement and responsiveness between family
members, with parents often withdrawing and exhibiting indifference
toward their children (Craddock, 2001; Restifo & B€ ogels, 2009; Sturge-
Apple, Davies, & Cummings, 2010).
Flexibility refers to the “amount of change in its leadership, role relation-
ships, and relationship rules” a family can undergo during developmental
transitions and times of family stress (Olson & Gorall, 2006, p. 519).
Families with a balanced level of flexibility or adaptability are able to bal-
ance between stability and change, changing rules or roles when necessary
and appropriate. These families often demonstrate a democratic approach
to solving problems or making decisions (Olson & Gorall, 2006).
Unbalanced levels of flexibility are characterized as either rigid or chaotic.
Rigid families typically have one authoritarian individual in charge of all
others in the family. Most decisions are decided by the one in charge, with-
out negotiation, compromise, and influence from other family members.
Chaotic families are typified by unpredictable and limited leadership.
Family roles are ambiguous, and decisions are made impetuously (Olson &
Gorall, 2003). Chaotic families often experience high levels of change in the
family unit, with little to no leadership.
The circumplex model identifies four unbalanced family types: 1) chaot-
ically-enmeshed, 2) chaotically-disengaged, 3) rigidly-enmeshed, and 4)
rigidly-disengaged (Olson, 2011). This study focuses specifically on the cha-
otically-disengaged type of family functioning, typified by unbalanced, low
cohesion, and high flexibility levels. Both the chaotic and the disengaged
scales have been found to be highly correlated, indicating that families who
are disengaged often tend to be chaotic (Olson, 2011). Chaotically-disen-
gaged families often have parents that are uninvolved in the child’s life,
emotionally disconnecting, and exhibiting a lack of support and consistent
expectations (Olson & Gorall, 2006). Craddock, Church, and Sands (2009)
found that both family disengagement and family chaos positively corre-
lated with authoritarian parenting style (i.e., controlling behaviors and
showing little support and nurturing) and psychological control, and nega-
tively correlated with parental nurturing. This study explains that in disen-
gaged families, parents can impose high psychological control using the
child’s insecurities during the process of disengagement (Craddock et al.,
2009). In chaotic families, parents may also employ control tactics and
manipulations that rely on the uncertainty of unstructured family systems
(Craddock et al., 2009). In either case, parents in chaotically-disengaged
families consistently provide ambiguous messages to their children. The
combination of disengagement and family chaos adds stress to the family
system, causing low levels of family quality (Craddock, 2001).
4 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

Developmentally, college-aged children are expected to individuate from

their family of origin while still staying emotionally connected (Arnett,
2001). While this transition is typically a time of instability characterized
by changes in residence, educational environment, and family and peer
relationships, the individuation process from one’s family-of-origin may
create a socio-emotional struggle between how to maintain connection
while also becoming more independent. This balance is extremely import-
ant, as it can affect a child’s ability to adapt to college life (e.g., Johnson,
Gans, Kerr, & LaValle, 2010). Parental emotional warmth and autonomy
support are associated with increased well-being and lower anxiety and
depressive symptoms (e.g., Fosco, Caruthers, & Dishion, 2012; Sokolowski
& Israel, 2008; van Oort, Greaves-Lord, Ormel, Verhulst, & Huizink, 2011).
Hamon and Schrodt (2012) found increased depression for college-aged
students whose parents are disengaged and less emotionally responsive. For
chaotically-disengaged families, the lack of support, combined with the lack
of family structure, can affect personal self-image, self-efficacy, and agency,
which inhibits their ability to achieve autonomy during normal develop-
mental transitions (Soucy & Larose, 2000).

Family communication
Communication is the facilitative, behavioral function of the circumplex
model for displaying cohesion and flexibility (Olson & Gorall, 2006). As
the process for sharing information, thoughts, ideas, and feelings between
family members, communication serves as the primary manifestation for
reflecting balanced and unbalanced levels of family functioning. During col-
lege-aged child developmental transitions, family communication patterns
reflect a willingness to adapt levels of cohesion or flexibility to the norma-
tive developmental demands and circumstantial family stressors. Positive
communication can help to maintain a balanced level of cohesion and flexi-
bility, while poor communication skills can often inhibit unbalanced family
systems from reaching an equilibrium in these dimensions (Olson, 2000).
Studies have found that those with positive communication skills (i.e.,
empathy, active listening) tend to have balanced levels of both cohesion
and flexibility, whereas those lower levels of positive communication skills
have higher family disengagement and chaos (Craddock, 2001;
Olson, 2000).
Although studies show that strong family communication is inversely
associated with child anxiety and depression levels (e.g., B€ ogels &
Brechman-Toussaint, 2006; Cascio, Guzzo, Pace, & Pace, 2013; Schrodt,
Witt, & Messersmith, 2008), these associations also exist among the college
student population. Positive family interactions and conflict influence social
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 5

and emotional well-being (Johnson et al., 2010; Telzer & Fuligni, 2013),
with high levels of positive communication decreasing depression and anx-
iety levels (Fosco et al., 2012; Hamon & Schrodt, 2012). Curran and Allen
(2017) examined the link between psychological health and two communi-
cation patterns, conformity orientation, and conversation orientation.
Families with high conformity orientation encouraged children to obey
parents, never allowing children to express beliefs and opinions, specifically
during conflict. Families with high conversation orientation encouraged a
collaborative and supportive environment where conflicts were met directly
with open communication. Results revealed that adult children in families
with high conversation orientation possess lower levels of depression,
whereas those in families with high conformity orientation have increased
levels of depression (Curran & Allen, 2017). Conversely, conflict and hostile
communication patterns have been found to be related to higher levels of
depression and anxiety sensitivity (Ballash, Pemble, Usui, Buckley, &
Woodruff-Borden, 2006; Lamis & Jahn, 2013; Ohannessian & de Los Reyes,
2014; O’Shea, Spence, & Donovan, 2014). Negative family communication
can potentially cascade, lowering intrapsychic resources that can mitigate
rising symptomology (Masten et al., 2005). Ballash et al. (2006) found that
an individual’s perceived lack of control (to manage difficult emotions)
mediated the relationship between dysfunctional communication and
increases in anxiety symptoms.

Self-compassion
Self-compassion is a construct comprised three overlapping components:
self-kindness versus self-judgment, common humanity versus isolation, and
mindfulness versus over identification (Neff, 2003). Self-kindness is the
inclination to extend nurture and understanding toward oneself rather than
harsh criticism and judgment. Instead of isolating oneself with the belief
that no one else is suffering and in emotional distress, common humanity
acknowledges that all people experience suffering, make mistakes, and
struggle. Mindfulness involves adopting an accepting, nonjudgmental stance
toward thoughts and feelings (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Rather than ruminat-
ing on difficult thoughts and emotions, mindfulness allows a more bal-
anced way to effectively cope with present-moment experiences. Research
suggests that self-compassion is associated to lowered anxiety and depres-
sion (e.g., Bergen-Cico & Cheon, 2014; Germer & Neff, 2013; Krieger,
Altenstein, Baettig, Doerig, & Holtforth, 2013; MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;
Raes, 2010; Samaie & Farahani, 2011). During difficult experiences that can
produce emotional dysregulation, self-compassion promotes the capacity to
cope by becoming more aware of and accepting of emotions without
6 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

judgment, and adopting a warm and patient tone toward oneself (Neff,
2011; Neff, 2003). Self-compassion can be effective in dealing with emo-
tional distress and rumination through increasing positive affect and reduc-
ing negative affect (Heffernan, Quinn Griffin, McNulty, & Fitzpatrick,
2010; Krieger et al., 2013; Neff, Rude, & Kirkpatrick, 2007; Neff & Vonk,
2009; Raes, 2010).
Although limited, the self-compassion literature suggests that family rela-
tionship factors are related to self-compassion levels. Higher family conflict
is linked with lower self-compassion levels, with higher family warmth
associated with higher levels of self-compassion (e.g., Kelly & Dupasquier,
2016; Neff & McGehee, 2010; Pepping, Davis, O’Donovan, & Pal, 2015;
Potter, Yar, Francis, & Schuster, 2014). Similarly, Neff and McGehee (2010)
found that secure family attachment was associated with higher levels of
self-compassion. Their study also showed that maternal support was linked
with higher levels of self-compassion, and maternal criticism with lower
levels of self-compassion. Pepping et al. (2015) found that parental rejection
and overprotection were associated with lower levels of self-compassion.
Furthermore, Potter et al. (2014) found that parent criticism is related to
increased self-coldness and lower self-warmth, and that self-warmth and
self-kindness mediated the relationship between parent criticism and social
anxiety. Self-compassion, along with perceived emotional invalidation, acted
as a partial mediator between negative parenting (e.g., indifference, over-
control, and abuse) and mental health problems (Westphal, Leahy, Pala, &
Wupperman, 2016).

Gender differences
This study will explore whether the relationships between chaotic-disen-
gagement, self-compassion, and anxiety and depression are stronger for
either females or males. As seen in the literature, females are likely to
report greater anxiety and depression levels, and lower self-compassion
(Ahmadi, Mustaffa, Haghdoost, & Alavi, 2014; Dixon & Kurpius, 2008;
Lockard, Hayes, Neff, & Locke, 2014; McLean, Asnaani, Litz, & Hofmann,
2011; Raudino, Fergusson, & Horwood, 2013; Soysa & Wilcomb, 2015).
However, research is mixed on whether gender moderates the link between
family functioning and psychological outcomes. Family relationships are
suggested to be more important for females (e.g., Fuligni & Masten, 2010;
Tsai, Telzer, & Fuligni, 2013), and positive parent-child relationships
related to lowered depression for females only (e.g., Moreira & Telzer,
2015; Telzer & Fuligni, 2013). In contrast, studies who sampled college stu-
dents found no gender differences in the levels of parent-child conflict
(e.g., Lefkowitz, 2005; Nelson, Bahrassa, Syed, & Lee, 2015), and in the link
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 7

between parent-child relationship quality and psychosocial adjustment dur-

ing the transition to adulthood (Johnson et al., 2010; Raudino et al., 2013).

Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: Higher levels of chaotic-disengagement will be directly asso-
ciated with higher levels of depression and anxiety.
Hypothesis 2: Higher levels of chaotic-disengagement will be associated
with lower levels of positive family communication.
Hypothesis 3: Higher levels of positive family communication will be
associated with higher levels of self-compassion.
Hypothesis 4: Higher levels of self-compassion will be associated with
lower levels of depression and anxiety.
Hypothesis 5: Positive communication and self-compassion will be sig-
nificant indirect effects in the relationship between chaotically-disengaged
family functioning and depression, and the relationship between chaotic-
ally-disengaged family functioning and anxiety.
Hypotheses 6: The relationship between chaotically-disengaged family
functioning, positive communication, self-compassion, and depression and
anxiety will be stronger for females than males.

Method
Participants
Participants for this study included 500 undergraduate students from a
southeastern university (n ¼ 108 males; n ¼ 392 females). Utilizing conveni-
ence sampling procedures, the first author and graduate students recruited
students from undergraduate courses, in which they were asked to com-
plete an online survey. Mean age of the non-clinical sample was 19.68
(SD ¼ 1.60; age range ¼ 18–25), with 55% of participants reporting
Caucasian ethnicity (see Table 1 for full descriptive statistics).

Measures
Chaotically-disengaged family functioning
The FACES-IV questionnaire was used to measure levels of chaotically-
disengaged family functioning (Olson & Gorall, 2006). The FACES-IV
assesses balanced and unbalanced types of family cohesion and flexibility
with the following six subscales (7-items for each subscale): 1) balanced
family cohesion, 2) balanced family flexibility, 3) family disengagement, 4)
family enmeshment, 5) family rigidity, and 6) family chaos. The FACES-IV
subscales are valid and reliable, with confirmatory factor analyses revealing
8 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

Table 1. Sample descriptives (means, standard deviations, and frequencies) of male (n ¼ 108)
and Female (n ¼ 392) college students.
Males Females Total
Variables M or % (SD) M or % (SD) M or % (SD)
Chaotic-disengagement Items (range ¼ 1–5)
We never seem to get organized in our family 2.65 1.04 2.73 1.13 2.07 1.10
It is hard to know who the leader is in 2.32 1.07 1.98 1.11 2.05 1.10
our family
Things do not get done in our family 2.51 1.13 2.05 1.03 2.15 1.06
It is unclear who is responsible for things 2.36 1.13 2.03 1.09 2.10 1.11
(chores, activities) in our family
There is no leadership in the family 2.71 1.15 2.38 1.18 2.44 1.17
Our family has a hard time keeping track of 2.84 1.05 2.39 1.12 2.49 1.11
who does various household tasks
Our family feels hectic and disorganized 3.42 0.93 3.12 1.09 3.18 1.05
We get along better with people outside our 2.69 1.18 2.57 1.18 2.59 1.17
family than inside
Family members seem to avoid contact with 2.19 1.13 2.13 1.02 2.15 1.04
each other when home
Family members know very little know very 2.32 1.10 2.03 1.00 2.09 1.03
little about friends of other family members
Chaotic-Disengagement Items (range ¼ 1–5)
Family members on their own when there is a 2.59 1.03 2.44 1.10 2.48 1.08
problem to be solved
Our family seldom does things together 2.03 1.07 1.82 1.01 1.86 1.11
Family members seldom depend on each other 2.57 1.03 2.49 1.02 2.51 1.02
Family member operate independently 2.54 1.07 2.33 1.14 2.37 1.12
Positive Family Communication (range ¼ 10–50) 36.64 6.81 38.10 7.26 37.77 7.19
Self-Compassion (range ¼ 26–130) 79.34 14.38 75.70 15.64 76.48 15.49
Anxiety (range ¼ 20–77) 44.48 10.05 44.76 10.27 44.69 10.21
Depression (range ¼ 0–60) 19.28 18.49 17.67 15.09 17.91 15.85
Ethnicity
White 51% 46% 55%
Other 49% 54% 45%
Age 20.03 1.58 19.58 1.59 19.68 1.60

that all of the items sufficiently loaded in their respective subscales (Olson,
2011). Due to the four unbalanced types of family functioning not being
tested as a construct, the present study modeled chaotically-disengaged
family functioning as a latent variable. All of the items from the family
chaos and family disengagement subscales loaded to create the latent vari-
able (1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly disagree). See Table 2 for standar-
dized factor loadings for males are females. Missing data for these items
range from 12.4% to 13.4%.

Positive family communication

The FACES-IV communication subscale measured positive family commu-
nication (10-items; 1 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree). Example
items included: 1) Family members express affection to each other, 2)
Family members try to understand each other’s feelings, 3) Family mem-
bers are satisfied with how they communicate with each other, and 4)
Family members discuss their ideas and beliefs with each other. Items were
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 9

Table 2. Chaotic-disengagement latent variable standardized factor loadings (k) for male
(n ¼ 108) and female (n ¼ 392) college students.
Chaotic-disengagement Items (range ¼ 1–5) Males Females
We never seem to get organized in our family 0.55 0.59
It is hard to know who the leader is in our family 0.46 0.48
Things do not get done in our family 0.73 0.74
It is unclear who is responsible for things (chores, activities) in our family 0.63 0.51
There is no leadership in the family 0.65 0.66
Our family has a hard time keeping track of who does various household tasks 0.57 0.53
Our family feels hectic and disorganized 0.61 0.63
We get along better with people outside our family than inside 0.48 0.74
Family members seem to avoid contact with each other when home 0.66 0.66
Family members know very little know very little about friends of other family members 0.61 0.64
Family members on their own when there is a problem to be solved 0.62 0.66
Our family seldom does things together 0.60 0.58
Family members seldom depend on each other 0.51 0.48
Family member operate independently 0.52 0.48

summed, with higher scores representing higher levels of positive commu-

nication. Internal reliability for this measure was adequate for the current
sample of males and females (a ¼ 0.88; a ¼ 0.90, respectively). Missing data
for this variable were 2.6%.

Self-compassion
The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) assessed college students’ reports of self-
compassion (Neff, 2003). The 26-item SCS uses six subscales to measure the
components of self-compassion: self-kindness, self-judgment, common
humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. Example items
include (1 ¼ almost never to 5 ¼ almost always): “I’m disapproving and judg-
mental about my own flaws and inadequacies,” “I try to be loving towards
myself when I’m feeling emotional pain,” “When times are really difficult, I
tend to be tough on myself,” and “When I see aspects of myself that I don’t
like, I get down on myself.” Items from the isolation, self-judgment, and
over-identification subscales were recoded so that higher scores indicated
higher level of self-compassion. All items were then summed, with higher
scores signifying higher levels of self-compassion (male a ¼ 0.88; female
a ¼ .92, respectively for this sample). Missing data for this variable
were 5.8%.

Depression
The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff,
1977) was used to measure depression symptomology. The 20-item scale
rates individuals’ reports of the following depressive symptoms from the
last week (0 ¼ rarely or none of the time to 3 ¼ most or all of the time):
mood, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, feelings of guilt and worth-
lessness, psychomotor retardation, sleep disturbance, and loss of appetite.
10 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

Items were coded and summed so that higher scores signified higher levels
of depressive symptomology (a ¼ 0.94; a ¼ 0.94, respectively for this sam-
ple). Missing data for this variable were 5.0%.

Anxiety
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measured individual reports of
anxiety symptomology (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs,
1983). The 20-item trait questionnaire used for the study asked participants
how they generally feel (1 ¼ almost never to 4 ¼ almost always). Example
items include: “I feel that difficulties are piling up so that I cannot over-
come them,” “I nervous and restless,” and “I make decisions easily.” Items
were coded and summed so that higher scores signified higher levels of
anxiety (males a ¼ 0.88; female a ¼ 0.90, respectively for this sample).
Missing data for this variable were 4.6%.

Data analytic strategy

Multiple-sample latent structural equation modeling tested the direct and
indirect associations between chaotically-disengaged family functioning,
positive family communication, self-compassion, and depression and anx-
iety. Due to missing data, we followed the procedures outlined in Kline
(2011) to determine which estimator to use. We first examined violations
of skewness and kurtosis. Normality violations occurred if skewness values
surpassed 3.0 and kurtosis values exceeded 10.0. All variables were within
normal range; thus, missing data were managed with full-information max-
imum likelihood (FIML).
Next, we tested the measurement model using a confirmatory factor ana-
lysis (CFA). We examined the CFA to appraise whether the model fit the
data, and whether the items adequately loaded on the chaotically-disen-
gaged latent variable. Each item theoretically corresponds with the make-up
of the latent variable. Family chaos and disengagement items from the
FACES-IV questionnaire were consistent with the circumplex’s model char-
acterization of the unbalanced chaotically-disengaged family type, as items
measure family disorganization, a family’s lack of leadership, family’s lack
of time spent together, and the inability of family members to turn to other
family members for support and help.
Next, we evaluated measurement invariance in order to assess whether
the chaotically-disengaged latent variable was similar among female and
male participants (Kline, 2011). A configural baseline model was initially
analyzed, with factor loadings, item intercepts, item residual variances, and
factor variances freely estimated for each group (i.e., Unit Loading identifi-
cation). Next, all factor loadings were constrained to be equal for each
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 11

group, with factor variances fixed to 1 (i.e., Unit Variance Identification).

A chi-square difference test compared the constrained model with the
unconstrained configural model. A significant worse model fit indicates
that some constraints should be relaxed; constraints were released until
model fit did not significantly worsen. The constraints from the previous
step were included in each subsequent step of invariance testing. Following
factor loading invariance testing, item intercept invariance was examined
by constraining item intercepts to be equal for female and males. After
running chi-square difference tests and relaxing the appropriate constraints,
the process continued for assessing group differences for item residual vari-
ance, factor variance, and factor means. All constraints from invariance
testing were included in the multiple-sample SEM path analyses.
Before testing the final structural model, we tested whether the pathways
of interest were either stronger for females or males. One at a time, each
pathway was constrained and a chi-square tested if the constrained model
fit significantly worse than the unconstrained model. A significant chi-
square test indicated that gender moderated that specific pathway. For par-
simony, pathways that did not reveal a significant chi-square test were con-
strained during testing of the final structural model. Bootstrapping (2000)
was used to test indirect effects; significance occurs at the p < .05 level if
the 95% confidence interval does not include zero (Shrout & Bolger, 2002).
Analyses were conducted using Mplus version 7.3 (Muthen &
Muthen, 1998–2014).

Results
The CFA measurement model had good fit with the data: v2
(258) ¼ 384.055, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.962; RMSEA ¼ 0.044 (90% CI:
< 0.035–0.053); SRMR ¼ 0.06), with factor items significantly loading onto
the chaotically-disengaged latent variable. The configural baseline model to
test measurement invariance also showed good model fit: v2
(128) ¼ 198.837, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.97; RMSEA ¼ 0.046 (90% CI:
< 0.033–0.059); SRMR ¼ 0.039). The chi-square test for item invariance
was significant: v2diff (13) ¼ 23.587, p < 05. The item “It is unclear who is
responsible for things (chores, activities) in our family” was relaxed; chi-
square test then showed that model fit did not significantly worsen: v2diff
(12) ¼ 21.728, p > .05. Chi-square tests for scaler, item residual, and factor
invariance were non-significant. Factor mean invariance did show worse
model fit: v2diff (1) ¼ 112.527, p < .05. This constraint was relaxed during
testing of the structural model. Due to invariance testing, separate path
models for both females and males were run simultaneously during the
structural path model analyses.
12 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

Next, we tested whether gender moderated the pathways of interest (i.e.,

Hypothesis 6). Chi-square tests showed that the path from chaotically-dis-
engagement to positive family communication was significantly different:
v2diff (1) ¼ 12.267, p < 05. Because gender did not moderate any other path-
ways, the corresponding pathways were constrained to be equal between
groups when testing the final structural model. The final structural model
was a good fit to the data: v2 (280) ¼ 417.267, p < .001; RMSEA ¼ 0.044
(90% CI: < 0.35–0.53); CFI ¼ 0.96; SRMR ¼ 0.066.
Results for Hypothesis 1 showed that, for both males and females, chaot-
ically-disengaged family functioning was significantly associated with higher
levels of depressive symptomology (b ¼ 0.19, p < .001; b ¼ 0.22, p < .001).
Regarding Hypothesis 2, levels of chaotically-disengaged family functioning
were negatively related to positive family communication for both males
and females (b ¼ 0.33, p < .001; b ¼ 0.69, p < .001). Furthermore, the
path from positive family communication to anxiety was significantly asso-
ciated with lower levels of anxiety for males and females (b ¼ 0.15,
p < .01; b ¼ 0.15, p < .001). Hypothesis 3 testing showed that positive
family communication was significantly and positively linked with self-
compassion for both groups (b ¼ 0.23, p < .001; b ¼ 0.23, p < .001).
Hypothesis 4 results found that higher self-compassion levels were associ-
ated with lower levels of depressive and anxiety symptomology for both
males and females (b ¼ 0.35, p < .001; b ¼ 0.43, p < .001; (b ¼ 0.68,
p < .001; b ¼ 0.67, p < .001). See Figure 1 for male and female standar-
dized path coefficients.
Bootstrapping results (i.e., Hypothesis 5) revealed that, for females only,
positive family communication and self-compassion relationship were sig-
nificant indirect effects in the relationship between chaotically-disengaged

Depression
.19*** (.22***)

Chaotically- -.35*** (-.43***)

-.33** (-.69***) Positive .23*** (.23***) Self-Compassion
Disengaged
Family Communication
-.68*** (-.67***)
Functioning

Anxiety
.09 (.08)

Figure 1. Standardized path coefficients for male (n ¼ 108) and female (n ¼ 392) college stu-
dents on the relationships between chaotically-disengaged family functioning, positive commu-
nication, self-compassion, and depression and anxiety. Standardized path coefficients for males
are outside of the parentheses and the standardized coefficients for females are inside of the
parentheses. Positive communication and self-compassion mediated the relationship between
chaotically-disengaged family functioning and depression for females (b ¼ 0.07, p < .01, 95% CI
¼ 0.03,0.11), and mediated the relationship between c chaotically-disengaged family function-
ing and anxiety for females (b ¼ 0.11 p < .001, 95% CI ¼ 0.05,0.16). p < .01. p < .001
(two-tailed).
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 13

family functioning and depression (b ¼ 0.07, p < .01, 95% CI ¼ 0.03, 0.11),
and in the relationship between chaotically-disengaged family functioning
and anxiety (b ¼ 0.11 p < .001, 95% CI ¼ 0.05, 0.16). Explanation of these
results is as follows: One standard deviation unit in increase in chaotically-
disengaged family functioning predicts a 0.07 standard deviation decrease
in depression (0.11 standard deviation increase in anxiety), via its prior
effect on positive family communication and self-compassion.

Discussion
Average rates of depression and anxiety in the college student population
have increased over the last 5 years (CCMH, 2019). One of the main fac-
tors that influence symptomology is family functioning. The transition to
college is defined by a natural separation from one’s family of origin.
Although changes in family relationships are expected (Arnett, 2001), fam-
ily connectedness and support influence college student well-being and
mental health (e.g., Johnson et al., 2010; Fosco et al., 2012). This study
explored the link between dimensions of college student chaotically-disen-
gaged family functioning and depression and anxiety, and whether family
communication and self-compassion were significant indirect effects in
these relationships. Results indicated that chaotically-disengaged families
were positively related to depression for both males and females. Family
relationships can be a source of concern that may exacerbate symptoms of
depression (Beiter et al., 2015). Indeed, college students who report lower
emotional family cohesion have increased negative thoughts and mental
health through the transition to college (Johnson et al., 2010). On the other
hand, students whose parents who are able to exhibit a balance between
emotional connection while supporting autonomy report lower levels of
depression (e.g., Fosco et al., 2012).
Confirming Hypothesis 2, chaotically-disengaged family functioning was
negatively linked to positive communication. This was expected, as families
with unbalanced levels of family functioning are likely to operate using
more negative interactional patterns. College students who perceive their
families as exhibiting chaotically-disengaged characteristics may identify
their communication as lacking empathy and attentiveness. Positive family
communication can be a sign of a health emotional connection. Schrodt
(2005) found that college students who perceive family members as open to
exchanging thoughts and feelings, and communicating about unpleasant
topics, are more likely to perceive stronger emotional bonds among family
members. This relationship between chaotic-disengaged family functioning
and positive family communication between was significantly stronger for
females. Considering the large sample size discrepancy between groups,
14 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

these results need to be interpreted with caution. One reason for the sig-
nificant difference may be that females may be more interdependent, with
family emotional support and connectedness affecting females more than
males (e.g., Darling, McWey, Howard, & Olmstead, 2007; De Goede,
Branje, & Meeus, 2009; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).
It is interesting to note that positive family communication was nega-
tively associated with anxiety levels. Our findings were congruent with pre-
vious research (e.g., Johnson et al., 2010; Telzer & Fuligni, 2013). Research
suggests that both positive interactions and expressiveness, as well as con-
flict and hostile interactions, can impact emotional well-being and anxiety
levels (e.g., Lamis & Jahn, 2013; Ohannessian & de Los Reyes, 2014; O’Shea
et al., 2014; Johnson et al., 2010; Telzer & Fuligni, 2013). Family systems
posit that communication patterns influence individual family members
(Cox & Paley, 1997). A cascade effect may occur, where positive family
interactions buffer against anxiety symptoms (Masten et al., 2005). Because
the circumplex model defines positive communication as the behavioral
component of exhibiting cohesion and flexibility, students who report posi-
tive family interactions may perceive their parents as providing the devel-
opmentally appropriate balance of emotional connection, and individuality,
in turn may mitigate the emotional distress that raises anxiety symptoms.
Supporting extant research, positive family communication was positively
associated with higher self-compassion levels (i.e., Hypothesis 3; Kelly &
Dupasquier, 2016; Neff & McGehee, 2010; Pepping et al., 2015; Potter
et al., 2014). Positive communication that exhibits warmth, support, and
respect may facilitate adaptive intrapsychic processes. Drawing on the fam-
ily systems theory, positive family communication defined by attentive lis-
tening and support may facilitate the support of emotion regulation skills,
like self-compassion, to navigate the normal stressors of being a college stu-
dent. Research has found that parent intrusive behaviors and over-involve-
ment during college limits the ability to learn and apply the skills to
function as a self-reliant adult (e.g., Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012;
Schiffrin et al., 2014; van Ingen et al., 2015).
Confirming Hypothesis 4 and previous research, higher self-compassion
levels were negatively related to anxiety and depression levels (e.g., Bergen-
Cico & Cheon, 2014; Germer & Neff, 2013; Krieger et al., 2013; MacBeth &
Gumley, 2012; Raes, 2010; Samaie & Farahani, 2011). Self-compassion is an
intentional stance for relating to oneself during times of emotional distress
and suffering. As an emotional regulation strategy, self-compassion protects
against rising symptomology through the ability to cope with ruminating
thoughts and brooding, and through strategies (i.e., self-kindness, mindful-
ness, and common humanity) for increasing positive affect and reducing
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 15

negative affect (Heffernan et al., 2010; Neff et al., 2007; Neff & Vonk, 2009;
Raes, 2010).
Hypothesis 5 was partially supported. Positive family communication
and self-compassion were significant indirect effects in the relationship
between chaotically-disengaged family functioning, and depression and
anxiety for females only. Higher levels of chaotically-disengaged family
functioning facilitated lower positive communication, which in turn low-
ered self-compassion levels, thereby exacerbating levels of depression and
anxiety. Family functioning and the behavioral display of less positive com-
munication cascades, affecting individual intrapsychic processes that inten-
sify symptomology. In addition to systems theory, transition theory may
also provide an explanation for these findings. Transition theory suggests
that family relationships and roles change during normal developmental
transitions, such as attending college (Schlossberg, 1981). Social support,
especially from family and friends, is connected to the development and
implementation of coping strategies during distress. Chaotically-disengaged
family functioning may produce inconsistent patterns of interaction with
minimal support, which hinders the college-aged child from developing
adaptive coping strategies for dealing with emotionally difficult circumstan-
ces. Neff and McGehee (2010) posited that students may have learned how
to treat themselves during difficult experiences through their parents mod-
eling throughout their childhood. The quality of parent-child attachment
during childhood and adolescence can also influence the development of
self-compassion; individuals from supportive family environments, and
who have positive communication patterns, are more likely to have higher
levels of self-compassion (Neff & McGehee, 2010).

Gender differences
Findings of this study support Hypothesis 6, as significant indirect effects
occurred for female participants only. Research supports that late adoles-
cent females are more interdependent and rely more on their parents for
support than males (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Mandara & Murray, 2000).
Keijsers and Poulin (2013) found that parent-child communication pat-
terns, which reflect family functioning, showed that females strive for a
state of autonomy through connectedness, while males strive for individu-
ation through separation. Emotional experiences in family relationships
may also be due to the gender socialization process, as females have a
greater vulnerability to family distress through the gender intensification
process (Davies & Lindsay, 2004). During adolescence, boys and girls may
experience pressure to conform to gender socialization roles, with females
valuing more connectedness and males valuing more independence. This
16 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

importance of family cohesion continues into the young adulthood, as

females tend to spend more time in familial communication (Fuligni &
Masten, 2010; Tsai et al., 2013). Taken together, our results support previ-
ous research that female well-being may be more dependent on the family
relationship quality. This effect was not present in our male sample.
Studies have found no effect between family relationship quality and male
depression symptoms (e.g., Moreira & Telzer, 2015). Our results need to be
interpreted with caution, as there was a large discrepancy in the number of
female and male participants. While researchers acknowledge a qualitative
difference in family relationships between males and females, future
research needs to examine how these differences impact well-being and
mental health symptomology.

Implications
Results of this study may have implications for practitioners who work
with college students suffering from depression and anxiety symptoms.
First, chaotically-disengaged family functioning was directly linked with
higher levels of depression for both males and females. In order to under-
stand whether the college student’s family is exacerbating symptomology,
therapists and counselors should assess the students’ perception of family
functioning, including the levels of chaotic-disengagement during adoles-
cence and the transition to college. Based on this information, practitioners
can provide psychoeducation on how patterns of family functioning affect
the individual, including exacerbating present symptomology.
The circumplex model hypothesizes that balanced families function and
communicate more effectively than unbalanced families (Olson & Gorall,
2003). Family members from chaotically-disengaged families likely have lit-
tle to no contact with each other; these non-existent interactions likely con-
vey a lack of support and connection. From a family systems perspective,
distress from the family system may spillover into the individual, increasing
emotional distress. Practitioners can work with the entire family system to
increase family cohesion and flexibility through changing the frequency
and quality of communication. Family members need to learn communica-
tion skills to express effectively, and to listen and actively respond in an
empathic and sensitive manner (Johnston, Bailey, & Wilson 2014).
Through increasing family cohesion and flexibility, caregivers can learn to
consistently and effectively support their child through the transition into
emerging adulthood through positive interactions.
If working with the entire family system is not an option, practitioners
can intervene by helping the individual college students develop adaptive
communication skills for use during parental interactions. In an effort to
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 17

decrease their emotional distress, college students who perceive their fami-
lies as possessing unbalanced family functioning are likely to limit commu-
nication with their parents. Teaching communication skills, specifically
increasing the student’s agency in connecting with their parents while also
having realistic expectations as to their responses, can assist students in
beginning to shift patterns of interaction. Throughout this process, practi-
tioners can enhance self-compassion to manage potential emotional dysre-
gulation. For example, instead of getting stuck in self-critical cycles during
and following family interactions (e.g., Leary, Tate, Adams, Batts Allen, &
Hancock, 2007), which may increase depressive and anxiety symptomology,
students can learn to adopt more supportive, kind, and balanced stance
toward oneself. Treating oneself with kindness and having a mindful, realis-
tic perspective of one’s family allows individuals to view their emotional
distress differently, which in turn may reduce symptomology. Increasing
self-compassion can enhance greater acceptance of emotions before, during,
or following family interactions. Treating oneself differently during emo-
tional distress and mindfully increasing acceptance may alleviate intensifi-
cation of anxiety and depression symptoms. As a result, behavior may also
change, as individuals are able to exhibit more empathy and are more will-
ing to compromise during interpersonally difficult situations (Yarnell &
Neff, 2013).

Limitations
Due to the correlational nature of the analyses, causation among the varia-
bles cannot be inferred. The cross-sectional nature of the data does not
allow examination of tempering ordering among the variables. Similarly, a
true mediational model cannot be established, as rearranging the variables
would produce an equivalent model. Due to the convenience sampling
methodology, the nonclinical, homogeneous sample (i.e., White, female)
limits the results’ generalizability to a more diverse, clinical population.
Consulting the means of the individual items, the sample in this study gen-
erally reported lower levels of family chaotic-disengagement. Studies should
examine these relationships in a more clinical sample, and who report
higher levels of chaotically-disengagement family functioning. Moreover,
testing of gender differences was limited due to the large sample size differ-
ential. Examining these interrelationships with a more equal sample size
may be able to tease out gender differences between pathways. Employing a
longitudinal design, future research should explore these interrelationships
using a more diverse and clinical sample. Factor loadings for the chaotic-
ally-disengaged latent variable were lowered than desired. While there is no
“gold standard” for factor loading values, each was significant and had a
18 M. B. BERRYHILL AND J. SMITH

standardized value of near a 0.5 or above. Furthermore, model fit for meas-
urement model was adequate. Future studies should test the model with a
second-order factor (using the chaotic and disengaged family types as sep-
arate latent variables to form the second-order factor). We also utilized
self-report measures, which may increase bias. Finally, we did not examine
other covariates that could be associated with the variables. Future research
should analyze additional factors that could explain the variance in college
student depression and anxiety levels. For example, research supports that
a secure attachment relationship and healthy separation-individuation are
related to positive academic and social-emotional adjustment to college
(e.g., Mattanah, Hancock, & Brand, 2004). Studies should also examine the
interrelationship relationship between the unbalanced dimensions of the
circumplex model, family communication, and the intrapsychic processes
that influence depression and anxiety symptoms.
This study expands current research by examining whether college student
perceived positive family communication and self-compassion were significant
indirect effects in the relationships between chaotic-disengaged family func-
tioning, and depression and anxiety. Our findings indicated that the interrela-
tionship between these variables was significant for females. During the
normative developmental transition to college, females who perceived their
family as chaotically-disengaged also reported lower positive communication,
which then lowered self-compassion, thereby exacerbating depression and anx-
iety levels. As the number of college students suffering from depression and
anxiety continues to increase (CCMH, 2019), it is important to examine the
relationship between interpersonal and intrapsychic factors associated with
this issue.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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