Power or Energy

Power is the rate of consumption or rate of generation of energy. Energy may be obtained from any sources. Some of the possible
sources of energy are mentioned below.
1. Hydropower
2. Thermal Power
3. Nuclear Power
4. Tidal Power
5. Solar Power
6. Geo-Thermal Power
7. Wind Power
1. Hydropower
Hydropower is the mechanism of generation of electrical power from the energy of water. Water from high elevation hits the
turbine located at lower elevation and turbine extracts the power of water which is also called hydraulic energy and converts it into
mechanical power. The generator converts the mechanical power of shaft into electrical energy. The difference in elevation of
headwater (intake water level or reservoir level) and tail water is called head. For generation of power, head and discharge of water
are vital parameters.
Advantages:
Environment friendly and non polluting
Renewable source of energy
Can generate power in large scale
Very efficient for peak load
Economic source of energy if discharge and head is available
Disadvantages:
Long period for planning and construction
Large initial cost
Firm energy may not be high if the hydrology is not uniform
There may be submergence of large area and ecological imbalance may takeplace.
 Hydropower projects are located in relatively difficult topography and longtransmission lines are required to evacuate the
power generated.
2. Thermal Power
In a thermal power plant, fuel such as coal, diesel, gases or combination of fuels burnt in order to produce steam, which
drives the turbine. Because of long time required for producing and accumulating steam, thermal power plants require several hours
for startup, and they are not very responsive to the demand. Hence they are basically used for base load as they have less peaking
capability. The operation and maintenance cost is very high in case of Thermal Power.
3. Nuclear Power
Nuclear power plants are very similar to fossil fuel steam plants except that nuclear fission produces the heat required to generate
the steam. The nuclear systems are operated at a lower pressure and temperature.
4. Tidal Power
The tidal power plant utilizes water elevated in high tides. The tidal power plant can be constructed where the sea is encroached to
the coast with narrow stripe with shallow depth. A barrier dam is constructed to create head and a reservoir separating sea into two
parts. A power house is often accommodated the barrier itself. Tidal amplitudes attain considerable magnitudes along certain
costal stretches.
 5. Solar Power
Solar power plants utilize the radiation of sun to generate electric power. The solar panels convert the solar radiation into electric
power. The solar energy has been used in domestic consumption as well as for certain commercial purposes. In Nepal, NEA has
generated more than 1.3 MW solar power and many other Independent Power Producers (IPPs) also have acquired for solar power
generation.
6. Wind Power
Wind power plant consists of a propeller, generator and other accessories. The propeller converts the wind power into rotation of
shaft and the mechanical power of the shaft is converted into electrical power by the turbines. Nepal is a mountainous country
with a high potential for wind energy. Nepal is said to have wind power of 3000 MW capacity. Several wind power plants have
been installed in the country especially in mountainous regions.
7. Geo-thermal Power
The temperature below the surface of earth is high. In geo-thermal power plants, the holes are drilled to get hot water/stream rock
fractures. Steam that comes up is purified and used to drive turbines, which drive electric generators. There may be natural
groundwater in the hot rocks anyway, or may need to drillmore holes and pump water down to them.
History of Hydropower Development in Nepal
• Pharping hydropower plant (500kw) was commissioned in the country in 1911. It took almost three decades before the 640kw
Sundarijal plant came into operation followed by 2400 KW khopasi plant that was commissioned in 1965. Only in 1989 the
total installed capacity reached about 250 MW after successive plants (kulekhani, marsyandi, Trisuli, Sunkoshi etc.) were
built with the assistance from India, China and the Russia along with the loan assistance made available from the World bank,
Asian Development bank the German and Japanese governments.
• The Hydropower Development Policy, 2001 of Nepal provides the guidelines for hydropower development in Nepal in line
with this policy objective. The major policy objective of Government of Nepal is to develop the nation’s vast hydropower
resource potential to serve the electricity needs of the people and to generate export revenue.
• The Government of Nepal has adopted liberal policy to attract private investment for the development of small hydropower
project. Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) has announced its policy to purchase the power produced by the private
developers of small hydropower projects up to 100 megawatt capacities at flat or the declared rates. The per units price for
the electricity generated from the small projects of capacity 1MW to 100 MW is fixed at NRS.4.80 for the wet months and
NRS . 8.40 for the dry months . December to May (Six months) are considered as dry months . There will be an annual
increment of 3 percent in the price for first eight years and the price escalation after this period will be considered to decide
the new purchasing rate. The power purchasing rate for above 100 MW will be fixed based on the negotiation, and thus
varies from project to project.
• In order to assist the capital investment for the construction of hydropower projects ,domestic, commercial banks are showing
great interest to invest in hydropower projects as priority sector investment. This trend has encouraged the private investors
to put up small hydropower projects and meet the growing demand of power in the country.
• Electricity Act, 2049 has facilitated wide business opportunities to local and foreign investors alike to developing hydropower
projects. In this regard, the governments has already granted permission to quite a few independent power producers (IPPs)
to develop hydropower projects in different parts of the country. Khimti (60MW),Bhotekhoshi (36MW), Indrawati (7.5MW),
Chilime (20MW), Piluwa Khola (3MW), Chaku khola (1.5MW), Sunkhoshi small (2.6MW) and khudi (4MW) have already
started generating electricity. The independent power procedures contributing about more than 50% of the total installed
capacity of Nepal’s power system some projects are in final stage of construction and some are in process .
• In 1996 first tunneling 500KW hydropower project in Tinau river of Butwal was commission through Butwal power
company (BPC) ltd; a private sector hydropower developing company from the grant of NORAD (Norwegian Agency for
Development Coperation). Then NORAD successively gave assistance to develop 5.1 MW Andhikhola multipurpose
hydropower with irrigation projects and Jhimruk Hydropower project in 1995 and 2000 AD respectively through BPC the
GoN. After some years , BPC was privatized.
• Lower Marshyangdi or Marshyangdi Hydropwer Project, 69 MW was completed by NEA on 5 November, 1989 with finance
 from GoN, IDA, KFW, SFD and ADB.
• Kaligandaki A hydropower project, 144 MW was completed on 2002 by NEA under financial aid of Asian Development Bank.
• Middle Marshyangdi Hydropower Project, 70 MW was completed in 2008 by NEA under technical and financial support of
Germany.
• Kulekhani I Hydropower Project, 60 MW was commissioned in 1982 AD. It is the only hydropower project of storage type in
the country. The project was funded by GoN, World bank, Kuwait Fund, UNDP, Overseas economic cooperation fund.
Kulekhani II Hydropower Project was constructed as cascade of Kulekhani I Storage Project in 1986 and the capacity of
Kulekhani II hydropower project was 30 MW. The 14 MW Kulekhani III Hydropower Project, which is the cascade of
Kulekhani I and II Hydropower plant was commissioned in 2019.
• Upper Trishuli 3A Hydropower project, 60 MW was commissioned in 2019.
• Upper Tamakoshi Hydropower Project (456 MW) was commissioned in 2021 AD, the largest operating hydropower project in
the country.
• Vidyut Utpadan Company Limited (VUCL) was established under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation on
November 20, 2016. The main objective of the company is to develop the hydropower projects in around the country.
• Rastriya Prasaran Grid Company Limited (RPGCL) was established under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and
Irrigation in 12 July 2015 for development of transmission lines through the country.
• Hydroelectricity Investment and Development Company Limited (HIDCL) was established at July 11 2011 as per the decision
of Government of Nepal dated July 6, 2011. The main purpose of this company is to manage funds for generation of
hydropower.

Present Status of Hydropower Development

• Regarding the status of hydropower development in Nepal, Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) publishes it’s annual report every
year. The status of hydropower development and total power situation in Nepal as per the annual report of NEA 2021-2022 is
presented below. The total installed capacity of Hydropower is 2081.78 MW whereas the total installed capacity including
hydropower, thermal and solar is 2189.92 MW. The total electricity consumption in fiscal year 2021/22 is 8,823 GWh. The
energy exported to India is 493 GWh.
• The contribution of NEA and it’s subsidiary companies in Total Energy in the country for fiscal year 2021/22 = 47.32 %
• The contribution of IPP’s Power Plants in total Energy in the country for fiscal year 2021/22 = 38.74 %
• The contribution of Import from Indian market in Total Energy in the country for fiscal year 2021/22 = 13.94 %
 Type Capacity (KW)
Total Hydro NEA – Grid Connected 578,624
Total Small Hydro NEA (Isolated) 4,536
Total Hydro(NEA) 583,160

Total Hydro NEA Subsidiary 478,100

Total Hydro IPP 1,020,580

Total Hydro Nepal (=NEA +IPP) 2,081,788

Total Thermal(NEA) 53,410

Total Solar (NEA) 33,140

Total installed capacity (NEA + IPP) Grid 2,185,382
Connected
Total Installed Capacity 2,189,918

Hydropower Potential of Nepal

Nepal has more than 6000 rivers and rivulets. The country has huge hydropower potential compared to it’s size. The large
hydropower potential of the country can be attributed to following reasons.
a. Nepal has huge topographic variation from North to South within a very short distance. Elevation of Nepal ranges from
59 masl to largest possible elevation in the world. Because of large elevation difference, sufficient head is available,
which increased Nepal’s hydropower potential.
b. The major river basins of Nepal originate from the mountains and hence are perennial. This ensures continuous flow of
water in therivers.
c. The country receives large amount of runoff from China as well. Therunoff in the country is also high. This shows that
there is enough water available in the country for hydropower generation.
 The hydropower potential is classified into three categories
1. Gross Potential: The power which can be theoretically generated isknown as gross hydropower potential. To assess
theoretical potential, each river basin is sub divided into several cascades andthe power that can be generated between
different points is calculated. The sum of all the power potentials within the country isGross Potential. The gross
hydropower potential of Nepal is 83000MW.

Project 3

Project 1

Project 2

Project 4
 2. Technical Potential: The power which is naturally possible may not be technically feasible. Out of the gross potential, the
power potential which is technically feasible considering geology, topography, climate, accessibility is called Technical
potential.
3. Economical Potential: Even if the project is technically feasible, if it does not give good return, it might not be financially
feasible. The total capacity that is technically feasible as well as which is financially feasible (i. e; benefit is more than or
equal to cost) is called economic potential. Economic potential of Nepal is 42,000 MW.
World’s Hydropower Potential
World’s Hydropower Potential in terms of energy is provided in the following table. The largest hydropower potential is in Latin
Americafollowed by Asia. The minimum potential is seen in Oceinia.

S. N. Name of Region Economically FeasibleEnergy Percentage ofTotal

(10^3 GWH)

1 Africa 700 7.5

2 Latin America 3000 32.13

3 North America 800 8.57

4 Asia 2710 29.02

5 Europe 860 9.21

6 Ocenia 172 1.84

7 Former USSR 1095 11.73

Hydropower Development Policy, 2058 (2001 AD)
Hydropower Development Policy, 2058 was approved by Government of Nepal on 15 October 2001. The policy
was revised based on the experiences of earlier hydropower development policy 2049 (1992 AD). The
Hydropower Development Policy, 2058 attempts to make the hydropower development procedures simple, clear,
investment friendly and transparent to hydropower projects for domestic useas well as for expert purposes.

✓ Objectives of Hydropower Development Policy, 2058

Objectives of Hydropower Development Policy, 2058 are:
1.To utilize existing water resources of the country and to produce electricity at
low cost.
2.To ensure dependable, reliable and quality electricity services within thecountry at reasonable price.
3.To tie up electrification with economic activities
4.To extend rural electrification to support rural economic development
5.To develop hydropower as an export commodity.

To achieve the above mentioned objectives, following provisions have been made in Hydropower Development Policy.
1. Environmental Provisions
• At least 10 % of driest monthly flow should be released downstream.
• The issues identified by environmental impact study shall be implemented during construction.
• The licensee has to rehabilitate and resettle the families to be displaced while generating, transmitting and
distributing electricity in accordance with the standards specified by Government of Nepal.
2. Provisions of Water Rights
• Legal provisions shall be made to prevent adverse effects on the availability of water or water right of the projects
for which license is not required or being operated after obtaining the license.
3. Provision of Investment in Production, Transmission and Distribution
• Hydropower shall be developed attracting the investment of domestic and foreign investors through sole or Joint
Venture Company and shall also be developed through Joint Venture Company of the private sector and the public sector.
• Capital market shall be mobilized to encourage domestic investment in hydropower generation.
• The Infrastructure Financial Institution to be established under the Build, Operate and Transfer of Public
Infrastructure Policy, 2000 shall also be utilized for the hydropower generation and distribution projects.
• In cases where irrigation benefits may also be availed from any storage project, Government of Nepal may be a
joint venture partner with the private sector in such a project

4. Provision of Special Investment for Infrastructure Development of Rural Electrification:

• Extend rural electrification
• Focus on rural electrification while awarding distribution license.
• Exemption of energy royalty for energy consumed in rural area affected by the project.
• One percent of the royalty shall be given to VDC’s affected by the hydropower for rural electrification.
• GoN shall provide grant through AEPC to domestic private sector to generate and distribute electricity upto 100 kW.
5. Provision relating to Transfer of Project:
• Any hydropower generation project has to be transferred to Government of Nepal in a good running condition, after
expiration of the period of time as specified in the license.
6. Provision relating to Power Purchase:
• Except in cases where a private party itself also distributes the hydropower generated by it in Nepal of Nepal, a power
purchase agreement has to be made to sell and purchase the hydropower generated.
7. Provision relating to Visa:
• Non-tourist visa and work permit shall be provided to the investor of a hydropower project, his/her authorized
representative and necessary foreign experts, skilled manpower and their families, as provided for in the agreement
until the construction and operation of the project
8.Maximum Utilization of Local Resources and Means:
• Foreign entrepreneurs shall be encouraged to be affiliated with local organizations.
• The technology shall be transferred to Nepali citizens.
• The licensee to build and operate hydropower shall utilize Nepalese labours, skills means and resources.
9. Management of Investment Risks:
• No nationalization of project during the valid period of the license.
• Foreign exchange facilities shall be provided to repatriate the amount from Nepal in foreign currency at the prevailing
exchange rate.
• Extend the term of license due to force majeure such as geological or hydrological conditions.
• Security arrangement
• No additional new tax, charge, tariff or governmental revenue under different headings shall be levied other than
 agreed at the time of issuance of the license.
10. Provision on Internal Electricity Market:
• Establishment of power-based industries shall be encouraged.
• For upto 1 MW capacity projects in the area not linked to national grid, the private sector may determine tariff on it’s
own and distribute electricity.
• Different rates for peak, off-peak hours and different seasons.
• Consumption of additional energy within the country by suitable tariff structuring.
• Increase the use of energy conserving electric equipment.
11. Provision on Export of Electricity
• Export of electricity as per the agreement between the exporter and GoN.
• Electricity shall be exported by identifying the export-oriented projects and developing such projects through the
private sector.
• Non-power benefits such as irrigation, flood control shall be evaluated in such a manner as to acquire maximum
benefits from large multipurpose storage projects, taking into consideration the national interest.
12. Provision on License:
• The provision of license shall be as follows:
a. Study and survey License – 5 years
b. Generation License – 35 years for domestic consumption and 30 years for export oriented projects.
c. Transmission License – 25 years
d. Distribution License – 25 years
• No license required for hydropower upto 1 MW capacity
13. Provisions relating to Fees:
• Royalty to be paid to the government shall be as follows.
14. Facilities relating to Tax and Customs
• No value added tax on industrial machineries, equipment and spare parts imported, after obtaining permission, by a
project so as to use them in the construction of hydropower project.
• Only one per cent customs duty shall be imposed on the devices, equipment, machineries and spare parts related
therewith to be imported with permission for the project during the construction phase.
15. Institutional Provision:
a. Regulatory body
To determine electricity tariff, wheeling charge, reliable and quantity electricity supply, protect interest of consumers.
b. Study and Promotional Body:
• Department of Electricity Development, DoED
• Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, WECS
c. Electric Energy Management Research Institute
To carry out study and research on financial, legal, environmental and technical aspects of electricity and to provide
training thereon.
16. Construction and Operation of Hydropower Projects by Government of Nepal
• Government of Nepal may, as per necessity, build and operate hydropower projects on its own, by concluding, and in
accordance with, a treaty or agreement with any friendly country or international organization.
Electricity Act, 2049
• This act was enacted at 2049/09/02 by parliament and it has gone five amendments including latest amendment in
2075/11/19.
• Under this act, the electricity rules, 2050 is formulated.
• This is the governing act for regulating the survey, generation, transmission and distribute the survey, generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity and to standardize and safeguard the electricity services.
• There are so many sections in the act but some of the provisions are mentioned here.
Section 3: Survey, Generation, Transmission or Distribution of Electricity
• No person shall be entitled to conduct survey, generation, transmission or distribution of electricity without obtaining
license under this Act.
Section 4: Provisions of License:
• A person or a corporate body, who desires to conduct survey, generation, transmission or distribution of electricity, shall be
required to submit an application to the prescribed officer along with the economic, technical and environmental study
report and with other prescribed particulars on the relevant subject.
• However, such report is not required to apply for survey license.
• The survey license will be awarded within 30 days of submission of application and generation, transmission and
distribution license will be awarded within 120 days to the applicant.
• A person or corporate body, who is doing generation, transmission and distribution of electricity prior to commencement of
this act shall have to apply for license within one year.
Section 5: Terms of License:
• (1) The term of license to be issued for the survey of electricity may be of 5 (Five) years in maximum.
• (2) The term of license to be issued for generations, transmission or distribution of electricity may be of 50 (Fifty) years in
maximum.
Section 8: License may be Cancelled
• (1) If the licensee performs any act contrary to this Act or rules made under this Act, the prescribed officer may issue an
 order to the concerned licensee by prescribing necessary improvements to be made on such activity within the specified
period.
• If the licensee makes no improvement within the prescribed period pursuant to Sub-section (1), the prescribed officer may
cancel the license of such person.
Section 9: Agreement may be Entered with the Licensee
• Government of Nepal may enter into agreement with the licensee for bulk purchase of electricity, guarantee for the
necessary capital to be invested or other financial and technical matters.
Section 10: Ownership of Government of Nepal
• (1) The land, building, equipment and structure related to the electricity generation plant or transmission and distribution
line established by the foreign national or corporate body as more than 50 (Fifty) percent of the total investment, shall be
under the ownership of Government of Nepal after the expiry of the term as prescribed in the license.
• (4) The electricity generation plant, transmission or distribution line established by the foreign national or corporate body
as up to fifty percent of the total investment or established without foreign investment shall be operated or managed by the
prior licensee by entering into an agreement with Government of Nepal after the expiry of the term as prescribed in the
license on conditions as mentioned in the agreement so made.
Section 11: Royalty to be Paid:
• (1) The licensee shall have to pay royalty to Government of Nepal at a rate of Rs. 100 for each installed kilowatt of
electricity per year plus 2 percent of the average tariff per unit (per kilowatt hour) for a term of upto fifteen years from the
date of generation of electricity for commercial purpose.
• (2) After the term specified in Sub-section (1), the licensee shall have to pay royalty to Government of Nepal at a rate of
Rs.1000 for each installed kilowatt of electricity per year plus 10 percent of the average tariff per unit (per kilowatt hour).
Section 12: Facilities Relation to Other Tax and Charge:
• Customs duties and sales tax shall be levied as per the prevailing schedule for the import of construction equipment,
machines, tools and equipment required for repair and maintenance as well as the spare parts thereof for hydro electricity
generation, transmission or distribution which are produced and sold by local industries. Only one percent customs duties
shall be levied for the import of materials which are not produced in Nepal and no charge for import license and sales tax
shall be levied for such imports.
Section 13: Facility of Foreign Exchange
• In case foreign currency has been invested in the generation, transmission or distribution of hydroelectricity as a loan or
share capital, Government of Nepal shall make available necessary foreign currency at the prevailing market rate of
foreign exchange for repatriation of investment or repayment of principal or interest of loan.
Section 14: Electricity Charge and Other Charges to be Realized:
• Government of Nepal or the licensee may realize electricity tariff or other charges fixed as per electricity regulatory
commission act (विद्युत वियमि आयोग).
Section 19: Electricity Service may be Stopped:
• Electricity services may be stopped in the following condition:
a. If there is a need to inspect, repair or to perform any important work relating to the electrical equipment and the electrical
line.
b. If there occurs natural calamities like flood, landslide, fire, earthquake or strike, lockout, riot or any other extraordinary
circumstances which are beyond one's control.
c. For any consumer, who do not pay the electricity tariff and other charges, which have to be paid.
d. For any consumer, who utilizes electricity unauthoritatively or utilizes electric power contrary to the terms and conditions
as set forth.
Section 21: Sale of Generated Electricity:
1) If any person desires to sell in bulk the electricity generated pursuant to this Act, Government of Nepal may purchase or
cause to purchase such electricity to the national grid.
2) The rate of electricity purchased pursuant to Sub-section (1) shall be determined by electricity regulatory commission.
Section 23: Fixing of Quality Standard of Electricity:
• Government of Nepal may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, fix the quality standard of electricity, which
is generated, transmitted and distributed pursuant to this Act.
Section 24: No Substantial Adverse effect be made on Environment:
• While carrying out electricity generation, transmission or distribution, it shall be carried out in such manner that no
substantial adverse effect be made on environment by way of soil erosion, flood, landslide, air pollution etc.
Section 31: Security of Electricity Structure:
• Government of Nepal may make necessary arrangement for the security of any electricity generation plant, transmission
plant, substation, or any reservoir made for generating electricity or any other structure related to electricity, on the request
 of the licensee or by itself, if it deems it necessary to provide such security.
Section 34: Government of Nepal may Generate and Develop Electricity:
• Nothing mentioned in this Act shall be deemed to have prevented Government of Nepal to generate or to develop
electricity on its own.
Section 35: Government of Nepal may enter into contract for Generation, Transmission or Distribution of Electricity:
• Notwithstanding anything written elsewhere in this Act, Government of Nepal, by entering into a contract with any person
or corporate body, may do or cause to do the generation, transmission or distribution of electricity subject to the terms and
conditions as mentioned in such contract.
Section 37: Appointment of Inspector:
• In order to carry out inspection and supervision of generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, Government of
Nepal may appoint Chief Electricity Inspector and Electricity Inspector as may be necessary.
Section 38: Penalties:
• (1) The prescribed officer may impose a fine up to five thousand rupees to any person who acts in contravention of this
Act or Rules made under this Act. If the damage is caused to anybody due to such act, compensation for such damage
shall also be realized from such person by the prescribed officer.
• (2) If any person generates, transmits or distributes electricity, without obtaining the license, which is required to be
obtained under this Act, or without observing the terms and conditions set forth in the license, the prescribed officer may
impose a fine up to five lac rupees and cause to close such activity.
Challenges of Hydropower Development in Nepal
The main challlenges of Hydropower development in Nepal are asfollows.
• Improving power system planning
• Increasing access to electrification of Rural Areas
• Raising the needed investents for Hydropower development.
• Institutional Strengthening of agencies involved in Hydropowerdevelopment.
• Promoting power exchange and export
• Reducing cost of Hydropower Development
Barriers in Hydropower Development
Barriers related to the development of Hydropower are as follows.
• Lack of internal Resources to fund huge investments in hydropower.
• Lack of access road
• Lack of transmission line
• Lack of local capacity such as trained manpower, raw materials, and electromechanical equipment manufacturing facilities
• Topographical difficulty and isolated load centers
• Export market beyond the control of Nepal
• High cost of hydropower production and transmission leading to high cost of energy which can’t compete in the market
• Very difficult environmental criteria to be followed while implementing hydropower projects and the rise in role of
“Environmental Activists” in decision making.
• High risks in terms of market risks, currency depreciation, production risks and foreign exchange risks.
• Fragile geological condition.
• Hydrological risk including variation in monthly discharges throughout the year and availability of less hydrological data.
• Weak position of the country to third countries especially for export purpose.
• Lack of proper cooperation with third countries for power excharge and trade.
• Lack of cross boundary transmission Lines
Institutions Responsible for Development of Hydropower in Nepal
1. Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI)
The Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI) is the line ministry with primary jurisdiction and
authority for hydropower development in Nepal and is responsible for development and protection of Nepal’s water
resources. The ministry is responsible for controlling and monitoring the activities of all the other instituitions except
Investment Board of Nepal (IBN). The MoEWRI issues licenses for survey and generation of hydropower projects,
formulates policies, guidelines and other regulatory frameworks.
2. Investment Board of Nepal
Investment Board of Nepal, IBN is under prime minister’s office. This organization is involved in issuing license of
large hydropower projects, conducting Project Development Agreement (PDA), facilitates the developers for large
hydropower projects, conducts talks to the potential investors for funding in hydropower projects.
3. Electricity Regulatory Commission
The electricity Regulatory commission was formed under electricity regulation commission act, 2074. The main
objective of the commission is to regulate electricity tarrif, maintain balance between demand and supply of electricity,
to make electricity service reliable, qualitative and available to all. The commission is aimed to make generation,
transmission and distribution ofelectricity and electricity business more simplified and clear.
4. Department of electricity Development
Department of electricity development is under Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation and is the
department of the ministry to assist the ministry in power sector. The main functions of DoED are
To issue survey and generation license to the hydropower developers.
To facilitate the developers for project development and to monitor thedevelopment of hydropower
projects.
To assist the ministry in formulation of policies, guidelines, directives.
To conduct study of hydropower projects all over the country.
To develop hydropower projects as per the policy of government.
5. Nepal Electricity Authority
The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) was established under Nepal Electricity Authority Act, 1984 and is fully owned
by the state. It is the government institution which has generated largest capacity of hydropower projects. The main
functions of NEA are generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. NEA is also responsible for conducting
Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with Independent Power Producers (IPP).
6. Vidyut Utpadan Company Limited (VUCL)
Vidyut Utpadan Company Limited (VUCL) was established under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and
Irrigation on November 20, 2016. The main objective of the company is to develop the hydropower projects in around
the country.
7. Rastriya Prasaran Grid Company Limited (RPGCL)
Rastriya Prasaran Grid Company Limited (RPGCL) was established under the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and
Irrigation in 12 July 2015 for development of transmission lines through the country.
8. Hydroelectricity Investment and Development CompanyLimited (HIDCL)
Hydroelectricity Investment and Development Company Limited (HIDCL) was established at July 11 2011 as per the
decision of Government of Nepal dated July 6, 2011. The main purpose of this company is to manage funds for
generation of hydropower.
9. Independent Power Producers (IPP’s)
Independent power producers by the date contribute about more than 50 % of the capacity in Integrated National Power
System (INPS). The IPP’s are the private sector investors who acquire the license from Government of Nepal, develop
hydropower projects, operate those hydropower projects under the terms of license and handover to government of
Nepal in a good running condition.
Classification of Hydropower Plants
Hydropower projects can be classified and recognized on different basis. Different criteria are used in different country.
Following are general classification of hydropower projects.
1. Classification Based on Head
There is no any hard and fast criteria for classification based on head. In Nepal,generally following criteria is used.
Very high head : head > 350 m High head :
head = 150 to 350 m
Medium head : head = 60 to 150 m
Low Head : Head = 30 m to 60 m
Medium Low Head : Head = 15 m to 30 m
Very low head : Head up to 15 m
2. Classification based on Capacity
Based on capacity, the hydropower are classified as followsMicro hydropower : Upto 100 KW
Mini Hydropower : 100 KW to 1 MW
Small Hydropower Project : 1 MW to 25 MW
Medium Hydropower Project : 25 MW to 100 MWLarge
Hydropower Project : > 100 MW
3. Classification Based on Grid Operation
Based on grid operation, the hydropower plants may be classified into
a. Isolated Plant
Isolated plant is not connected to national grid. National grid is the transmission line in which power generated from
more then one projects are connected. The isolated plants are of small capacities which are usually aimed for rural areas
orisolated villages which are far away from the national grid.
b. Grid Connected Plant
Grid connected plants are connected on national grid. In Nepal, there is an Integrated National Power System (INPS) in
which all the plants are connected. The operation of the grid connected plants is controlled by Load Dispatch Center
(LDC) which is operated by NEA. Most of the plants are grid connected plants except some micro hydropower plants,
bio gas plants, wind power plants.
4. Based on Operation
Based on the operation time, the plants are of following two types.
a. Base load plants
The base load plants are the plants which are operated for base load. Base load is the minimum load that is required
throughout the time. The base load plants are operated continuously throughout the year. In our system, the Run off
River plants are base load plants. In developed countries, the Nuclear plants or coal plants are used as base load plants.
b. Peak load plants
A peak load plant is one which supplies peak power to the system. The time at which load demand is high is called peak
load. Peak load may change from time to time and hour to hour of a day. For a peak load plant, it should have storage
capacity so that the stored water can be used at required time. The Peaking Run off River (PRoR) plants are used
as daily peak plants and storage plants can be used as seasonal peaking or any type of peaking.

5. Based on Storage Capacity

Based on storage capacity, the hydropower projects areclassified into
a. Run of River (RoR) Project
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project
c. Storage Projects
d. Pump Storage Projects

a. Run of River (RoR) Projects

• RoR projects generate power by utilizing the flow or discharge that is available on the river at each month. The
monthly power production from these projects depends on the discharge of river available in that month. In RoR
projects, there is no any provision of storage. A simple weir/barrage is constructed which just diverts the required
 amount of water for the project. RoR project generates at constant rate throughout the day.
• The components of RoR projects include weir/barrage, intake, undersluice, divide wall, gravel trap, approach channel,
forebay, headrace canal/pipe/tunnel, forebay/surge tank, penstock pipe anchor block, power house including all
hydromechanical and electromechanical equipment, tailrace.
b. Peaking Run of River (PRoR) Project

• Peaking Run of River is similar to RoR project. The difference is that a PRoR project has a daily peaking pond which
can store the discharge of off-peaking hours of a day in dry months. In the dry months, when the discharge available in
the river is less than the design discharge of the project, the generation will be less than the installed capacity. In our
system, the power demand is not constant within a day. The demand is more during certain hours which are called peak
hours. The hours of day other than peak hours are called off-peak hours. Generally maximum demand occurs during
evening (generally 6-10 PM). Previously, demand was in more during morning hours (7-9 AM) too however, in recent
years this pattern has changed.
• A PRoR project stores water of the river during off peak hours and generates at full capacity during peak hours. For the
storage of water, a daily peaking pond is provided. However, the storage capacity of daily peaking pond is small and it
can store the discharge of certain hours of a day. Also, the peaking capacity of all projects may not be uniform. As per
PPA guidelines of NEA, the peaking capacity from 1 hour to 6 hours is acceptable.
• But when the discharge available in the river is equal to or greater than the design discharge of the plant, the PRoR
project works same as RoR project and there is no need to store water in the peaking pond.
• The construction cost of PRoR projects is higher than RoR projects because the dam has to be constructed in PRoR
projects to generate peaking reservoir. That’s why NEA provides higher rates of energy during peaking hours for PRoR
projects. For PRoR projects, the rate of energy during peaking hours is from 8.5 to 10.55 Rs per unit during peaking
hours whereas for RoR projects, NEA provides rate of energy as 8.4 Nrs per unit in dry season.
• The components of PRoR project are dam/barrage, peaking reservoir, undersluice, divide wall, undersluice, spillway,
energy dissipator, settling basin, headrace tunnel/pipe, surge tank, penstock, anchor blocks, powerhouse with necessary
hydromechanical and electromechanical equipment, tailrace, etc.
For better understanding of PRoR project, refer the following example.
A hydropower project is constructed in a river with net head of 200 m and
design discharge of 40 cumecs. The overall efficiency of the project is 85 %.
The installed capacity is :
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW
Consider the month of June when the discharge available in the river is 60 cumecs. The power produced in the month of
June will be
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW. Here discharge 80 cumecs is not used as the plant can not utilize
more discharge than it’s design discharge. So, in the month of June, the water in the river is sufficient and there is no use of
the peaking reservoir/pond.
Consider the month of April when the discharge available in river is 10cumecs. The power produced in the month of April
will be,
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*10*200 = 16,677 KW = 16.7 MW
So, if we run the plant continuously for 24 hours, we will get 16.7 MW power. However, if we store the water in the
reservoir during off peak hours and operate the project for 6 hour peaking, then discharge available for peak hours would be
10∗24∗60∗60
Q= = 40 cumecs.
6∗60∗60
Then the power generated would be
P = ηүQH = 0.85*9.81*40*200 = 66,708 KW = 66.7 MW, which is the installed capacity of the plant. So, we can shut down
the plant for 18 hours andoperate the plant for 6 hours at full capacity. However, it is not necessary thatthe plant may be shut
down completely during off-peak hours. The design may differ from project to project.
 Power
P = 16.7 MW throughout the day

12AM 12PM 12AM Time

Fig: Power Generation without PRoR

Power

P = 66.7 MW P = 66.7 MW

7 AM 9 AM 6 PM 10 AM Time
Fig: Power Generation with PRoR
Fig: Middle Marshyangdi Hydropower Project, Lamjung a PRoR Project
 c. Storage Hydropower Project
• Storage hydropower projects are those projects in which there is a high dam and large reservoir of sufficient capacity to store
the required amount of water. The storage project stores water during the wet season/monsoon period so that it can be used
in wet season when the discharge available in the river is low.
• In our country, there is large variation in discharge flowing in the river among different months. The discharge flowing in
the river changes from month to month. The maximum discharge of the rivers may be even more than 20 times than the
minimum discharge. Considering our river hydrology, the production in the dry months even falls to 20 % of their designed
capacity for RoR projects whereas the demand remains same.
• So, to manage this gap between production and demand, storage projects are required which can generate at high capacity
during dry season. Also, these projects can be operated at any time when the load in the system is high. If the project is shut
down (closed), the water will not be wasted as the water can be stored in the reservoir.
• The storage project required huge cost investment as it consists of large dam and reservoir. The cost of land acquisition for
the reservoir submergence area is also high. That’s why energy generated from this project has high cost. The PPA schemes
of NEA provide 12.4 Nrs per unit for dry season (6 months) and 7.1 Nrs. per unit for wet season.
• In the countries like Nepal, where the water available in the rivers in dry months falls significantly and the power production
also falls in the dry months, storage projects are absolutely necessary. Presently, the demand management on the country has
been made possible by import from India. However, for a long term basis, the country has to develop more storage projects
to address seasonal gap between production and demand.
• Also, there are many benefits with storage projects. A storage project gives solutions to flood problems on the
downstream reaches, opens opportunities of tourism development an recreation activities, can be used as multipurpose
project.
• The components of storage project are, dam, spillway, energy dissipator, intake, tunnel, surge tank, penstock pipe, anchor
blocks, powerhouse and tailrace.
Kulekhani I Reservoir
Kulekhani I Dam and Reservoir
 d. Pumped Storage Projects
o Pumped storage project consists of two reservoirs, one on upstream and one on downstream. The upper reservoir supplies
water to the plant during generation phase. The lower reservoir supplies water to upperreservoir during pumping phase.
o The pumped storage projects are especially targeted for peak hours. During peak hours, the plant will start generation. The
rate of energy during peak hours is high. During off-peak hours, the plant starts pumping water from lower reservoir to upper
reservoir using cheap energy available in the grid. These plants are suitable for addressing daily peak demand.
o The turbine of the pumped storage plant acts as pump during pumping so that there is no need of installing separate pump for
pumping hours.

Fig: Pumped Storage

Fig: Pumped Storage
Fig: Pumped Storage
 Flow Duration Curve

• If the discharge data of the river is plotted with the time such that the discharge is plotted in Y-axis and the probability of
exceedance of that discharge is plotted in X-axis, then the resulting curve is called flow duration curve. Probability of
exceedance is the percentage time at which the flow equal to or more than the given flow is expected to occur.
Discharge

Q40
Flow Duration Curve
Q50

40 50 Probability of exceedance %
Flow Duration Curve of a Nepalese River
As the probability of exceedance increases, the discharge decreases.
Uses of the Flow Duration Curve:
1. To know the variation of the discharge pattern in the river.
2. To Assess the primary and the secondary power that can be generatedfrom the river.
3. To fix the designed discharge for any Run of River or Storage Plants.
4. To fix the installed capacity for any hydropower plant.
 5. To calculate the storage volume required for the storage projects.
6. Flow duration curve is used to select the number and the types of turbines.
7. After generating the flow duration curve, we can assess the different capacities that can be generated from the given river
source. It helps us to select the suitable option among them as which is suitable for the power market or the energy
demand.
8. Flow duration curve is the primary parameter which helps a decision maker to formulate plans regarding the development
of hydropower projects,.
9. Flow duration curve can be combined with the sediment data which is very much useful to access the sediment load that
is expected to enter the reservoir of any storage project.
Design Discharge:

• The discharge at which the given hydropower is designed is the design discharge. It is different than the discharge available
in the river. It is the maximum discharge which the turbines of the hydropower plants can withdraw (except the case of
overloading). It is fixed either by the economic considerations (mostly) or by the other requirements (like the requirements
of the power demand, plant type, etc).

• The installed capacity of a plant is fixed based on the design discharge. Installed capacity, P = η*γ *Q*H,
where,
η = efficiency,
γ = specific weight of water
Q = design discharge
H = Head
Installed Capacity:
• The maximum power that can be generated from a particular power plant is called installed capacity. It is the most economical
capacity of the plant, i. e; the benefit from the plant is optimum if the plant capacity is fixed at installed capacity. A pant can
not generate more power than the installed capacity. The installed capacity of a plant can be calculated by:
• Installed capacity, P = η*γ *Q*H,
where, η = efficiency,
γ = specific weight of water
Q = design discharge
H = Head
 Power Duration Curve:
• The curve obtained by plotting the power generated on Y-Axis and the probability of exceedance of that power on X-Axis is
called the power duration curve. The power duration curve is similar to the flow duration curve. The power duration curve for
a RoR project is a declining curve because the discharge in the river does not remain constant all the time and the discharge
decreases with increase in probability of exceedance. The power duration curve of a storage projects is straight line as the
constant power can be generated by varying discharge even if there is fluctuation in head.

• The figure shows that the power produced from a RoR project changes drastically after certain time whereas the power
generated from storage project also decreases but ay very slow rate. A comparison of power duration curve for a storage project
and RoR project constructed on the same river is shown on above figure. A power duration curve is also generated on the same
way as flow duration curve.
Firm Power/Primary Power:
• The power, which can be produced from the plant in any time of the year is calledfirm power. It is the minimum power
which can be produced from the plant.
Secondary Power:
• The power which can be produced from the plant in excess of the firm power is called secondary power. The plant can deliver
secondary power for only a certain part of a year.
• Secondary power = Actual power – primary power.
Firm Energy:
• The energy, which can be produced from the plant in one year if the plant operatesat the firm power for whole year is called
firm energy. It is equal to the firm power multipiled with one year.
• Firm Energy = Firm power * 1 year
Secondary Energy:
• The energy, which is in excess to the firm energy is called secondary energy.
• Secondary Energy is equal to the total energy minus the firm energy. Secondaryenergy = Total Energy- Firm Energy
Spill Energy:
• The energy, which is in excess to the demand is called the spill energy. When the total energy in the grid is more than the
demand, then it is called spill energy. The energy will spill during the wet season when all the plants run at full capacity.
Average annual energy
• The energy generated by a power plant in an average year is called average annual energy. The average year is the synthetic
year in which the flow is the average of flows of several year. It is the sum of energy generated in every months of that year
Seasonal Energy
• The energy generated in a particular season is called seasonal energy. For energy generation perspective, a year is divided into
wet season and dry season. The energy generated in wet season is called wet energy and energy generated in dry season is
called dry season energy. In out context, the wet season is from Jestha 16 to Mansir 15 and the dry season is from Mansir 16 to
jestha 15.
• The minim dry energy of a RoR, PRoR and storage project should be at least 30 %, 30 % and 35 % of average annual energy
to be eligible for power purchase agreement (PPA). However, 4 month dry energy (Poush to Chaitra) equal to 15 % is
acceptable.
Load Curve:
Load
• There is basic difference between the load and demand. Load is the power that the generator has to produce in order to
meet the power requirements. In electrical terms, a load can be a fan, heater, bulb,etc.
• Demand will be equal to load if the power supply is sufficient to meet the demand.
• Load curve is the curve showing load and time. The daily load curve in Nepalease power system shows peak
during morning and evening as compared to the day and night. This is mainly because, the major load in Nepal is the
domestic load. If there are sufficient industries that run during the day time, the load curve would show the peak during
the day time.
• The typical load curve of Nepal is shown in the figure above. The load curve shows the hourly variation of load
within a day. The load curve of Nepal as recorded by Integrated National Power System(INPS) is shown in
following slides.
Types of Load Variation:
1. Daily Load Variation: The variation of load within a day is called daily load variation. The load in Nepalease power
system is more in morning and evening thanthe days and night. The evening peak is more than the morning peak.

2. Weekly Variation: The variation of load within a day of week is called weekly

variation. Normally, the load is more in Saturday than other days of the week.
3. Monthly Variation: The variation of load in different months is called monthly variation. The load is more in the
winter months as compared to other months.

4. Seasonal Variation: The variation of load in the seasons is called seasonal

variation.
Plant Outage: Plant outage is the situation when the power plant remains shut.Outage may be of two types.
a) Planned Outage: The outage which is already known is called planned outage. Itis scheduled outage for settlilng
basin flushing, maintenance of the electromechanical works, etc.
 b) Forced Outage: The forced outages are emergency outages. This type of outageoccurs suddenly due to the huge
problem in the system like failure of transmissionline, damage of headworks, etc. The forced outage is emergency
situation and it causes huge loss to the system.
Important Terms and Factors:
(i) Connected load: It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to supply system. A power station supplies
load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has certain equipment installed in his premises. The sum of the continuous ratings
of all the equipment in the consumer’s premises is the “connected load” of the consumer. For instance, if a consumer has
connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then connected load of the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 =
1000 watts. The sum ofthe connected loads of all the consumers is the connected load to the power station.
(ii) Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period. The load on the power
station varies from time to time. The maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given period (say a day) is the
maximum demand. Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all the consumers do not switch on their
connected load to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum demand is very important as it helps in determining the
installed capacity of the station. The station must be capable of meeting the maximum demand.
(iii) Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load i.e;
Demand factor = Maximum demand/Connected load . The value of demand factor is usually less than 1.It is expected because
maximum demand on the power station is generally less than the connected load. If the maximum demand on the power station is
80 MW and the connected load is 100 MW, then demand factor = 80/100 = 0·8.The knowledge of demand factor is vital in
determining the capacity of the plant equipment
(iv) Average load: The average of loads occurring on the power station in a givenperiod (day or month or year) is known as
average load or average demand. Average load = Total energy consumed within a time period/time
V) Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a givenperiod is known as load factor i.e.,
Load factor = average load/peak load
The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time period considered is a day or month or
year. Load factor is always less than 1 because the average load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays a key
role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit
generated.
vi) Diversity factor: The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to
the maximum demand on power station is known as diversity factor i.e., diversity factor = sum of individual maximum
demands/maximumdemand on the power station
vii) Plant factor or capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced tothe maximum possible energy that could have
been produced during a given period. In other words, it is the ratio of average load to the installed capacity.
i.e. plant/capacity factor = average load/installed capacity
viii) Reserve capacity: It is the difference between installed capacity and peakload. Reserve capacity = Installed capacity – peak
load
Reserve capacity factor = installed capacity/peak load.Utilization factor = peak
load/installed capacity
Relation between load factor, utilization factor factor and plant factorPlant factor = Load factor*Utilization Factor
Q. 1
Given: Design discharge (Q) = 19.8 m3 /sec
H = 150 m
η = 85 % (Modified)
Installed capacity, P = η*ү*Q*H
= 0.81*9.81*19.8*150/1000 = 24.76 MW
Peak Load = 24 MW
For average load,
Total energy consumed within the day =
10*4+15*3+20*2+16*2+13*5+16*2+16*2+24*2+12*2 = 358
MW-hr
Average load = total energy consumed/time
= 358/24 = 14.91 MW
Load factor = Average Load/Peak Load
= 14.91/24 = 0.62
Alternately, Load factor = total energy/(peak load*time) =
358/(24*24) = 0.62
Plant factor = Average Load/Installed Capacity
= 14.91/24.76 = 0.602
Alternatively, Plant factor = Total energy consumed/(Installed
capacity*time)
= 358/(24.76*24) = 0.602
Reserve capacity = Installed capacity – Peak Load = 24.76 – 24 = 0.76
MW
Reserve factor =installed capacity / Peak load = 24.76/24 = 1.03
Utilization factor = peak load/installed capacity = 24/24.76 = 0.96
 A power station has to supply the following loads on an average day. Draw the load duration curve and calculate daily load
factor. Find the plant factor and utilization factor of a standby thermal power plant of capacity 1000 KW which operates at the time
when load exceeds more than 1500 KW

Time
10PM 4Am- 5AM- 6- 8AM- 11Am 12PM 4PM- 6PM- 8PM-
- 12PM
-4AM 5AM 6AM 8(AM 11Am -4PM 6PM 8PM 10PM
)
Load, 500 750 1000 2000 2500 1500 2500 2000 2500 1000
KW
Load on - - - 500 1000 0 1000 500 1000 -
the
therm al
plant
Load factor of the system
Energy consumed =
500*6+750*1+1000*1+2000*2+2500*3+1500*1+2500*4+2000*2+250
0*2+1000*2 = 38750
Average Load = total energy consumed/time = 38750/24 = 1614.58 KW
Peak load = 2500 KW
Therefore, Load factor of the system = Average Load/peak Load =
1614.58/2500 = 0.645
For the Standby Thermal Plant:
Installed capacity = 1000 KW
Peak load = 1000 KW
Energy consumed = 500*2+1000*3+1000*4+500*2+1000*2 =
11000KWh
Average Load = Energy consumed/time = 11000/24 = 458.33 KW
Utilization factor = Peak Load/Installed capacity = 1000/1000 =1
Load factor = Average Load/Peak load = 458.33/1000 = 0.458
Capacity factor = Load factor*Utilization factor = 0.458*1 = 0.458
Q. 2013/2b.
The average monthly flows (m3/sec) of a river from January to
December are 180, 158, 142, 130, 190, 443, 1065, 1270, 1105,
745, 390 and 213 respectively. The effective head is 105 m and
overall efficiency is 88 %. The design discharge of the plant is set
at Q65 . Based on these data, answer the following.
i) What is installed capacity of the plant
ii) What are annual firm power, annual firm energy and
secondary energy produced by the plant.
iii) If the deficit in firm power in present power system is 125
MW, what is the required storage capacity of a storage
plant.
Method 1:
Month No. of Flow Desc. Rank Exc. Dischar Power, Energy,
Days (m3/se Order Prob. ge for MW GW-hr
c) Power
Jan 31 180 1270 1 8.33 180 163.15 121.38
Feb 28 158 1105 2 16.67 158 143.21 96.23
Mar 31 142 1065 3 25 142 128.7 95.76
April 30 130 745 4 33.33 130 117.83 84.83
May 31 190 443 5 41.67 190 172.22 128.13
June 30 443 390 6 50 194.6 176.39 127
July 31 1065 213 7 58.33 194.6 176.39 131.23
August 31 1270 190 8 66.67 194.6 176.39 131.23

Sept 30 1105 180 9 75 194.6 176.39 127

Oct 31 745 158 10 83.33 194.6 176.39 131.23
Nov 30 390 142 11 91.67 194.6 176.39 127
Dec 31 213 130 12 100 194.6 176.39 131.23
Total Energy (GW-hr) 1431.8
i. Installed Capacity
Example for prabablity of exc.
PoE = Rank/Total no. of data
For rank =1, PoE = 1/12*100 = 8.33 %
For rank = 2, PoE = 2/12*100 = 16.67 % and so on
Let’s interpolate for Q65
Q58.33 = 213, Q66.67 = 190
Q65 = 194.6 cumecs
Net head, H = 105 m, Design Discharge, Qdesign = 194.6 cumecs, efficiency, = 88 %
Installed Capacity, P = η*ү*Qdesign*H
= 0.88*9.81*194.6*105 = 176394 KW
=176.39 MW
ii. Firm Energy, Firm Power, Secondary Energy
For January, Energy = Power * Time = 163.15 MW*31*24 hr
= 121383.6MW-hr = 121383.6/1000 GW-hr = 121.38 GW-hr
Firm Power = 117.83 MW
Firm energy = energy generated if the plant runs at 117.83 MW throughout the year
= 117.83 MW * 365*24 hr = 1032190.8 MW-hr = 1032190.8 /1000 GW-hr
= 1032.19 GW-hr
Secondary Energy = Total Annual energy – Firm Energy = 1431.8 – 1032.19
= 399.6 GW-hr
iii. If the deficit in firm power in present power system is 125 MW, what is
the required storage capacity.
The required installed capacity = firm power of the plant + required additional
power = 117.83 + 125 = 242.83 MW
Let Qdesign be the design discharge of the plant which produces 242.83 MW firm
power throught the year.
Then, P = η*ү*Qdesign*H
Or, 242.83*1000 = 0.88*9.81*105
Therefore, Qdesign = 267.89 m3/sec
To supply the discharge of 267.89 m3/sec regularly throught the year, the
required storage capacity of reservoir is calculated as shown in the table below.
Deficit discharge in January = 87.89 m3/sec
Deficit Volume in January = 87.89*31*24*60*60/1000000 Mm3 = 235.4 Mm3
Here, Mm3 = Million Cubic meters
Storage capacity of reservoir = cumulative of defits = 1551.46 Mm3
Month No. of Days Flow Required Deficit Deficit
(m3/sec) Discharge Discharge Volume,
Mm3
Jan 31 180 267.89 87.89 235.4
Feb 28 158 267.89 109.89 265.84
Mar 31 142 267.89 125.89 337.18
April 30 130 267.89 137.89 357.41
May 31 190 267.89 77.89 208.62
June 30 443 267.89 - -
July 31 1065 267.89 - -
August 31 1270 267.89 - -
Sept 30 1105 267.89 - -
Oct 31 745 267.89 - -
Nov 30 390 267.89 - -
Dec 31 213 267.89 54.89 147.01
Storage Capacity of the reservoir, Mm3 or MCM = Sum Deficits 1551.46
Method 1:
Month No. of Flow Desc. Rank Exc. Dischar Power, Energy,
Days (m3/se Order Prob. ge for MW GW-hr
c) Power
Jan 31 180 1270 1 8.33 180 163.15 121.38
Feb 28 158 1105 2 16.67 158 143.21 96.23
Mar 31 142 1065 3 25 142 128.7 95.76
April 30 130 745 4 33.33 130 117.83 84.83
May 31 190 443 5 41.67 190 172.22 128.13
June 30 443 390 6 50 194.6 176.39 127
July 31 1065 213 7 58.33 194.6 176.39 131.23
August 31 1270 190 8 66.67 194.6 176.39 131.23

Sept 30 1105 180 9 75 194.6 176.39 127

Oct 31 745 158 10 83.33 194.6 176.39 131.23
Nov 30 390 142 11 91.67 194.6 176.39 127
Dec 31 213 130 12 100 194.6 176.39 131.23
Total Energy (GW-hr) 1431.8
2019/2/a
A discharge gauge station is kept near proposed headworks area
recorded following discharge series in last five years.
i. Prepare the average monthly discharge series for the
project.
ii. What will be the project capacity if the design discharge is
set to be 40 % exceedance. The project has net head of
253.4m and overall efficiency is set to be 89 %.
iii. Calculate firm energy and secondary energy
2019/2/a

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Au Sept Oct Nov Dec
g
2011 3.9 3.0 1.9 1.2 5.3 19.2 107.8 55 87.5 27.5 13.5 8.7
.4
2012 6.4 5.3 3.8 3.2 7.3 52.3 83.7 53 125. 24.1 10.2 7.4
.2 6
2013 4.3 3.1 2.6 1.7 2.8 13.5 106 94 39.4 20.3 10.4 6.5
.7
2014 4.8 4.0 3.4 3.3 5.1 23.0 109.4 97 70.8 12.1 5.2 3.3
.4 1
2015 3.9 1.6 1.3 0.5 6.4 20.8 112.2 10 56.6 19.6 10 6.7
5.
9
2016 4.8 4.7 5.3 3.3 3.9 42.0 153.7 85 41.6 18.9 8.4 5.3
.1
Avg. 4.6 3.61 3.05 2.2 5.11 28.46 112.13 81. 70.25 20.41 9.61 6.31
8 95
Solution Method 2
Month Flow Desc. Rank Exc. Discha Power, Energy, GW-
3
(m /se Order Prob. rge for MW hr
c) Power
Jan 4.68 112.1 1 8.33 22.02 48.71 35.54
Feb 3.61 81.95 2 16.67 22.02 48.71 35.54
Mar 3.05 70.25 3 25 22.02 48.71 35.54
April 2.2 28.46 4 33.33 22.02 48.71 35.54
22.02 40 22.02 48.71 28.46
May 5.11 20.41 5 41.67 20.41 45.15 6.87
June 28.46 9.61 6 50 9.61 21.26 24.23
July 112.1 6.31 7 58.33 6.31 13.96 12.85
August 81.95 5.11 8 66.67 5.11 11.3 9.22

Sept 70.25 4.68 9 75 4.68 10.35 7.90

Oct 20.41 3.61 10 83.33 3.61 7.98 6.69
Nov 9.61 3.05 11 91.67 3.05 6.74 5.37
Dec 6.31 2.2 12 100 2.2 4.86 4.23
Total Energy, GW-hr 247.97
Calculation of Q40
Q33.33 = 28.46, Q41.67 = 20.41,
By interpolation, Q40 = 22.02
Installed Capacity
P = ηүQdesign*H
Here, Qdesign = Q40 = 22.02
Therefore, P = 0.89*9.81*22.02*253.4/1000 = 48.71 MW
For Q = 20.41,
P = ηүQ*H= 0.89*9.81*20.41*253.4/1000 = 45.15 MW
Similarly, find power for other discharges.
Calculation of Energies
E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = Power*Time
For these increments (E1 to E4 ), Power = 48.71 MW
And Time = 8.33 % of a year = 8.33/100*365*24 hr = 729.7 hr
Therefore, E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = 48.71*729.7/1000 GW-hr = 35.54 GW-hr
Calculation of Energies
E5 = Power*Time = 48.71*6.67/100*365*24 = 28460.86 MW-hr
= 28.46 GW-hr (Because time interval for E5 = 6.67 %)
E6 = Power*Time
For the energy increments E6 to E13 , the power is not constant. So we
have to use average power. However, the time interval is constant in all
increments, i.e; 8.33%
For E6, time = 41.67-40 =1.67 %
Average Power = (48.71+45.15)/2 = 46.93 MW
E6 = 46.93* 1.67/100*365*24 = 6865.48MW-hr
= 6.87 GW-hr
For E7, time = 8.33%
Average Power = (45.15+21.26)/2 = 33.20 MW
E7 = 33.20* 8.33/100*365*24 = 24226.3 MW-hr
= 24.23 GW-hr
E8 = 12.85 GW-hr
E9 = 9.22 GW-hr
E10 = 7.9 GW-hr
E11 = 6.69 GW-hr
E12 = 5.37 GW-hr
E13 = 4.23 GW-hr
Total Annual Energy = 247.97 GW-hr
Firm Power = 4.86 MW
Firm Energy = Firm Power*1 Year = 4.86*365*24 MW-hr
= 42.5 GW-hr
Secondary Energy = Total Annual Energy – Firm Energy
= 247.97 – 42.5 = 205.47 GW-hr
 Power, MW

8.33
E1
8.33 48.71

8.33
E2
16.67 48.71

8.33
E3
25.00 48.71
8.33 E4
33.33 48.71
6.67

40 E5 48.71
1.67

E6 45.15
41.67
8.33

E7
50
21.26
8.33 8.33

58.33
E8 13.96
E9
66.67 11.30
8.33

E10
75 10.35
E11
83.33 7.98
8.33 8.33

E12
91.67 6.74
E313

100 4.86
% Time
2018/1b
Solution from Method 1
Month No. of Flow Desc. Rank Exc. d/s Discha Power, Energy
Days (m3/se Order Prob. releas rge for MW , GW-
c) e Power hr
Jan 31 4.21 38.8 1 8.33 0.16 4.05 10.13 7.54
Feb 28 2.92 32.3 2 16.67 0.16 2.76 6.90 4.64
Mar 31 2.14 21.02 3 25 0.16 1.98 4.95 3.69
April 30 1.55 16.17 4 33.33 0.16 1.39 3.48 2.50
May 31 2.92 7.76 5 41.67 0.16 2.76 6.90 5.14
June 30 4.86 5.82 6 50 0.16 4.70 11.76 8.47
July 31 21.02 4.86 7 58.33 0.16 9.44 23.61 17.57
August 31 38.8 8 66.67 0.16 9.44
4.21
23.61 17.57
Sept 30 32.33 2.92 9 75 0.16 9.44 23.61 17.00
Oct 31 16.17 2.92 10 83.33 0.16 9.44 23.61 17.57
Nov 30 7.76 2.14 11 91.67 0.16 7.6 19.01 13.69
Dec 31 5.82 1.55 12 100 0.16 5.66 14.16 10.53
Total annual energy, GW-hr 125.91
Solution:
i. Exceedance probability = Rank/Max. Rank
Q33.33 = 16.2 m3 /sec, Q41.67 = 7.76 m3 /sec
Q40 = design discharge = 9.44 m3 /sec
Downstream release or riparian flow = 10 % of driest monthly flow = 0.1*1.55
=0.155=0.16 m3 /sec
Note: to find discharge available for power,
a. Calculate monthly flow – d/s release
b. If the flow calculated in a is > design discharge, then adopt design
discharge as discharge available for power
c. If the flow calculated in a is < design discharge, then adopt the flow
calculated in a is the discharge available for power
Net Head, H = 300 m, efficiency, η = 85 %,
ii. Installed capacity = ?
P = η *ү*Qdesign*H = 0.85*9.81*9.44*300 = 23614 KW = 23.61 MW
Now, firm flow for hydropower = minimum flow available for power
generation = 1.39 m3 /sec
Firm capacity = minimum capacity = 3.48 MW
For January
Power, P = η *ү*Q*H = 0.85*9.81*4.05*300 = 10131 KW = 10.13 MW
Note use flow available for January.
Energy = Power*Time = 10.13 MW*31 days
= 10.13/1000*31*24 GW-hr = 7.53 GW-hr
For August:
Power, P = η *ү*Q*H = 0.85*9.81*9.44 = 23.61
Energy = Power*Time = 23.61/1000*31*24 = 17.57 GW-hr
iii. Firm Power = Minimum power = 3.48 MW
Firm Energy = Energy generated if the plant runs at firm power
throughout the year
= firm power*1year = 3.48/1000*365*24 = 30.48 GW-hr
Total annual energy = 125.91 GW-hr
Secondary Energy = Total annual energy – firm energy = 125.91-30.48
= 95.43 GW-hr
iv. Storage Requirement
Present firm flow = 1.39 m3/sec
Additional firm flow = 2 m3/sec
New firm flow = 2+ 1.39 = 3.39 m3/sec
The new firm flow will not be available for the month of February, March,
April, May
Deficient discharge for February = 3.39 – 2.76 = 0.63 m3/sec
Storage volume required for February = deficient discharge *time =
0.63*28*24*60*60 = 1.52*106 m3 = 1.52 MCM (MCM = Million Cubic Meters)
Deficient discharge for March = 3.39 – 1.98 = 1.41 m3/sec
Storage volume required for march = deficient discharge*time =
1.41*31*24*60*60 = 3.7 *106 m3 = 3.7 MCM (MCM = Million Cubic Meters)
Storage volume required for April = (3.39-1.39)*30*24*60*60
= 5.18*106 m3 = 5.18 MCM (MCM = Million Cubic Meters)
Storage Volume required for May = (3.39-2.76)*31*24*60*60 = 1.68*106 m3 =
1.68 MCM (MCM = Million Cubic Meters)
In other months, the flow available for power is more than the required firm
flow. So, storage is not required for those months.
Total storage required = 1.52+3.7+5.18+1.68 = 12.08 MCM.
3.0 Planning and Layout of Hydropower Projects (4hrs)

3.1 Site Selection for Hydropower Projects: Reconnaissance,

Preliminary, Hydrological, Geological and Final Investigation

3.2 Requirements for Hydropower: Use of flow Duration and Mass

Curves, Energy Flow Diagram, Estimation of power Potential,
Demand and Prediction

3.3 Reservoir Regulation: Peak and Normal Flow Discharges,

Distribution of Sediments and their Control, Life of Reservoir

3.4 Layout of Hydropower Projects: Intake, Reservoir, Pen stock,

Supply Conduit, Casing, Draft Tube, Tail Race
Layout of Run of River (RoR) Hydropower Plant
Run of River hydropower plants don not have storage facility or reservoir.
They are simply diversion type of projects. The water of the river is diverted
with the help of headworks. The water diverted by headworks after
sedimentation is carried to the powerhouse by the conveyance system (canal,
tunnel, pipe, penstock). The water hits the turbine and power is generated
and the water is again released to the river by tailrace.
The components of RoR projects are as follows.
a. Weir/Barrage: Weir or barrage is the diversion structure which raises the
water level and diverts the river water.
b. Undersluice: Undersluice structure is the gated structure and is a part of
weir that flushes the sediments deposited at intake location.
c. Intake: To withdraw required discharge from river.
d. Gravel Trap: To settle and remove the gravels contained in the river
water.
e. Settling Basin: Also called desander or desanding basin. It removes the
suspended sediments from river water.
f. Headrace conveyance: The headrace conveyance conveys water from
settling basin to surge tank or forebay. The headrace conveyance may be
canal, pipe or tunnel depending on geology, topography, discharge and
other factors.
g. Surge Relief Structure (Surge Tank/Forebay): Surge relief structure is
used for relief against water hammer pressure. Surge tank or forebay is
used as the surge relief structure.
h. Penstock: Penstock pipe conveys water from surge tank/forebay to the
turbine.
i. Power House: Power house complex is equipped with different types of
hydro-mechanical and electro-mechanical equipment which generate
power.
j. Tailrace: Tailrace conveys the water released from the turbine to the
river.
There are basically three layout alternatives for RoR Projects.
1. RoR layout with canal option
2. RoR layout with pipe option
3. RoR layout with tunnel option
The layout and brief information regarding these types of layouts is presented
below.
1. RoR layout with canal option
In this type of scheme, canal is used as the headrace conveyance structure.
Water is conveyed by the canal to the forebay. In case of load rejection (plant
shutdown), the water is spilled from forebay. Canal layout is possible if the
terrain has gentle and slope. In case of instabilities like landslides, this
alignment becomes less favorable. The cross drainage structures must be
provided wherever necessary. For suitable terrain, this type of layout is less
costly and hence economic. This layout is generally suitable for small projects.
The structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake, gravel trap,
settling basin, headrace canal, forebay, penstock, power house and tailrace.
b. RoR layout with Pipe Option
The canal alignment is generally not suitable in hilly terrian due to difficult
topography, large number of cross drainage structures, large loops and
requirement of large canals. So, for small discharge, if the geology of the
alignment is suitable, pipe alignment is more preferable. Also pipe alignment
requires less land and is better if the alignment passes through settlement
area. But for large discharge large pipes and supports are required and pipe
alignment may not be suitable. The surge tank is used as the surge relief
structure. The structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake,
gravel trap, settling basin, headrace pipe, surge tank, penstock, power house
and tailrace.
Fig: Plan of RoR layout with pipe option
c. RoR with Tunnel Option
If the geology of the alignment is not stable and there are the problems of
landslides and other mass movements, pipe and canal alignment is not
suitable. Also, the pipe alignment and canal alignment have large length as
these are surface alignments. If tunnel alignment is adopted, the length will
also be reduced and head loss also reduces. Further, the geological problems
like landslides do not affect tunnel as this is underground type. The land
requirement is zero for tunnel and there will not be problems of land
acquisition. For large discharge, canal and pipe alignment are not suitable.
However, tunnel alignment includes large cost and large construction time.
There are many geological uncertainties in tunnel excavation.
The structures required are weir/barrage, undersluice, intake, gravel trap,
settling basin, headrace tunnel, surge tank, penstock, power house and
tailrace.
Fig: Plan of RoR layout with tunnel option
Fig: Section of RoR layout with tunnel option
Layout of Storage Projects
The main component of a storage project is it’s dam. Many of the structures
are provided in the dam itself. The dam creates reservoir, which stores the
water. Also, due to height, dam builds the head required for the project or
adds head to the natural head. The spillway is the structure to spill excess
flood water from the reservoir. Stilling basins are provided to dissipate the
energy of water flowing over spillway. Water is withdrawn from intake. The
undersluices of bottom sluices are used to flush the sediments or to release
flood.
The headrace tunnel and surge tank may or may not be provided. If the
power house is located at the dam toe, headrace tunnel and surge tanks are
not necessary. However, if the power house is located away from the dam,
headrace tunnel and surge tank is required.
There are two types of layouts of storage hydropower projects.
a. Storage Project with Powerhouse at Dam Toe
b. Storage Project with Power House away from Dam Toe
Fig: Plan Storage Project with power house at dam toe
Fig: Section of Storage Project with Power House at dam toe
Fig: Plan and Section of Storage Project with Power House away from dam
Site Selection of Hydropower Projects
Following points shall be considered while selecting site pf hydropower
project
a. The hydropower project site must be easily accessible.
b. The hydropower project site where physical infrastructure are
already developed shall be preferred.
c. The power evacuation point must be close to the project so that
length of transmission line becomes less.
d. The hydropower sites that lie in national parks, conservation areas
shall be given less priority than other sites.
e. The hydropower project site shall be selected in such a location
where high head is available.
f. The hydropower project sites shall be located in perennial river.
g. The hydropower sites that cause displacement of large number of
people and loss of large fertile land shall be avoided.
h. The hydropower project sites with social issues shall be
given less priority.
i. The construction material shall be easily available at
hydropower site.
Topographical Survey and Investigation in Hydropower Projects
i. Collection of available topographic survey maps from Department of
Survey.
ii. Collection of Satellite images of high resolution specially for the reservoir
type project.
iii. Preparation of topographical survey map of 1:5000 scale for whole
project area.
iv. Topographical survey and mapping of major project structure locations
at 1:1000 scale and 1 m contour interval.
v. Strip Survey of conveyance alignment at 1:5000 scale and 5 m contour
interval.
vi. Topographical survey of access road and project road at 1:1000 scale and
1 m contour interval.
vii. Cross sectional survey of the river at least 500 m upstream and
downstream of the dam/weir/barrage at 50 m intervals and L-section
survey of the river covering at lease 500 m on upstream and
downstream of the dam/weir/barrage axis.
viii. Cross sectional survey and L-sectional survey at, upstream and
downstream of the gauge location
Geological and Geotechnical Investigation
1. Regional Geological Study
Regional geological study includes the geological study of the project area as
a whole. It is not limited to the project area. For example, if the regional
geological maps are to be prepared for a project in Chameliya River, the
regional geological study study may include whole Mahakali Region.
a. Available literatures, geological maps, cross sections shall be collected
and studied.
b. Regional geological maps shall be prepared at 1:10,000 scale.
c. Field survey shall be conducted to verify regional geological maps.
2. General Geology and Geomorphology of the Project area:
a. The geological formations, tectonic settings in the project area shall be
studied.
3. Geological Mapping of the Project Area:
a. The geological maps shall be prepared for the project area at 1:5000
scale.
b. The geological maps shall include rock types, their attitudes (dip,strike)
all over the project area.
4. Engineering Geological Mapping
a. Engineering Geological Maps shall be prepared in 1:1000 scale.
b. The project structures like weir/barrage, power house, settling basin,
canal, tunnel, pipe, surge tank, penstock shall be shown in the
engineering geological maps.
5. Geophysical Investigation:
a. Geophysical investigation is performed to find the extent of soil
overburden, the depth from the surface below which rock will be
available.
b. It is conducted by methods like 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography
Survey, Seismic Refraction Survey, etc.
6. Geotechnical Investigation:
a. Geotechnical investigation is done to extract the material below the
surface of earth and test for engineering properties.
b. Core drilling is performed at major project components such as dam,
spillway, surge tank, intake, settling basin, penstock alignment, power
house, inlet portal of tunnel, outlet portal of tunnel and other locations
to extract the core material below the surface of earth.
c. The core material is placed in core boxes clearly mentioning the depth
from which the material is extracted.
d. The core sample (rock or overburden soil and gravel/boulder) is tested in
laboratory for engineering properties.
a) Sieve and sedimentation,
b) Atterberg limits,
c) Natural moisture content and
d) specific gravity
e) Proctor compaction tests on collected samples for physical
properties of soil.
f) triaxial compressive strength
g) uniaxial ultimate compressive
h) load tensile strength
i) Los Angeles abrasion.
j) crushing value
k) Impact value
l) specific gravity
m) swelling pressure
n) Alkali aggregate reaction tests on rock samples.
Hydrology and Sediment Study
1. Hydrology
a. The studies made on pre-feasibility level and collect the additional data if
any and check the consistency of data will be reviewed.
b. Collection of data from the gauging station established during the pre-
feasibility level study will be continued.
c. Flow data will be checked with the rainfall data and generate long series
of flow data required, regional analysis shall be carried out.
d. Flow data will be updated and will be assessed accordingly the mean
monthly flows and develop an upgraded flow duration curve.
e. Cable way will be installed at the intake site wherever necessary for
discharge e measurement.
f. Discharge measurements will be carried out intensively during the rainy
season (June September) to cover the peak floods at the intake site and a
reasonable numbers during other months (October to May).
g. The discharge measurements shall be conducted at least once in a
month. The measurements shall be carried out at the same date of each
month.
h. Discharge measurements will be carried out at the tailrace site and update
and upgrade the rating curve for this site.
i. Design flow for power generation is updated and upgraded
j. Design floods computed during the pre-feasibility level study and
determine the flood for 10,000 years return period is updated and
upgraded.
k. PMP will be calculated and will determine accordingly the PMF.
l. Diversion floods computed during the pre-feasibility level study shall be
updated and upgraded
m. Three cross-section surveys at the headworks site and three at the tailrace
site covering the highest flood marks, preferably at the same locations as
of the pre-feasibility study so that any change in the cross-sections can be
observed if occurred will be carried out, and magnitude of flood peaks
with the previous ones will be checked.
n. Rating curve for the tailrace site will be updated.
o. Water quality analysis will be carried out to determine the corrosive
effectiveness.
p. Information on GLOF events in the past will be collected and will be
assessed the magnitude of the potential GLOF, if any.
2. Sediment
a. Sediment samples will be collected daily during the rainy season
(June to September) and a reasonable numbers (twice a month)
during other months (October to May) so that a rating curve for
the sediment concentration against the discharge could be drawn.
b. Sediment samples to evaluate the volumes and characteristics of
solid material transportation including particle size distribution,
petrographic analysis (mineralogical analysis ) will be analyzed to
determine the hardness of particles, particle size and the nature
of material entering the power waterways.
c. Daily sediment load shall be computed and annual load in the
river shall be accessed and this figure shall be checked with the
data collected from the secondary sources.
d. The sediment yield in the reservoir for different year after
construction shall be carried out.
e. The sediment propagation and delta propagation in the reservoir
shall be calculated in case of reservoir project.
Stages of Hydropower Development
Since hydropower development is a huge investment, it needs the planning of
each and every phase related to the study and development of the
hydropower. The stages of hydropower development include project
identification, different level of study and then construction stage. Following
are the stages planning for the study and development of a hydropower
project.
1. Project Identification Stage
2. Reconnaissance Stage
3. Pre-Feasibility Study
4. Feasibility Study
5. Detailed Engineering Design
6. Construction stage/Implementation Stage
The sequence of planning can be explained by the following chart
 Institutional Setup Implementation/Development

Implementation/Development
Project Identification

No
Feasible ?

Yes Detailed Engineering Design

Yes
Reconnaissance
No
Feasible ?

No Yes
Feasible ?
Feasibility Study
Yes Yes
No
Pre-Feasibility Study Feasible ?
1. Project Identification Stage
The potential project site may be identified based on the topographic maps,
google maps, basin plans, master plans, government basket, list of projects from
government data, literature studies and available hydrological data. A desk
study report is prepared which includes the project site, available data, project
capacity, energy generated and other information about the project is prepared.
The desk study report can be prepared without visiting the site. However, there
nay be limitations since this does not include site data. If the project is not
found attractive, another project is identified.
2. Reconnaissance Stage
Reconnaissance includes confirmation of the information collected in the
identification phase by the field visit. The walkover (reconnaissance) of the
project area is carried out to explore the possible alternatives of layout. The
relevant data on the topography, hydrology, geology, access, environmental
conditions is collected by the field visit. In this stage, different alternative
layouts for the project are prepared and the alternative locations for different
project structures are identified. A preliminary report is prepared which
summarizes project information, layout, capacity, energy, alternative layouts
and other relevant information. Although it may be very early to decide the
feasibility of the project, but based on the study and findings, we can
recommend whether we should conduct further study of the project or not.
3. Pre-Feasibility Study
Prefeasibility study is technical study of the project. It includes the complete
technical study and regarding environmental study, some environmental
baseline data may be collected. However, the level of detailing of technical
study is less as compared to feasibility study and detailed engineering design.
It is not compulsory to conduct prefeasibility study. However, prefeasibility
study is conducted in following two situations.
a. Some more time is needed by the government or the hydropower
developers for planning for the further studies.
b. To conclude whether the project is feasible or not? Whether we should
invest for the further studies or not.
The works carried out in the pre-feasibility study are
i. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, tunnel or pipe) alignment,
powerhouse site, access road and the river section.
ii. Geological investigations
Under geological investigations, following works are done.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological mapping and engineering geological mapping of the project
area.
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
d. Core Drilling and geotechnical tests at some important locations.
e. Construction Material Survey: Location of construction material site and
approximate quantity of construction material.
iii. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological studies, following investigations and studies are carried
out.
a. Installation of the Hydrological gauge.
b. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall.
c. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
d. Estimation of the design flood
iv. Preparation of the alternative project layouts (at least three) and
selection of best layout from optimization studies.
v. Hydraulic design and preliminary structural design of the project
components.
vi. Preparation of drawings.
vii. Calculation of the power and energy generated from the project
viii. Preparation of cost estimate for the project.
ix. Assessment of benefits from the project.
x. Conducting financial and economical studies and evaluation of the
project.
xi. Recommendation whether the project should be taken for feasibility
study or should be dropped.
4. Feasibility Study
Feasibility study is mainly conducted to know the technical, environmental,
financial and economical feasibility of the project. The topographical survey,
geological and geotechnical investigations, hydrological measurement and
study are carried out for the project. The design is done and drawings are
prepared. Environmental Study is conducted along with the feasibility study.
After finalization of layout, design and preparation of the drawings, the cost
benefit analysis is performed to know financial feasibility of the project. The
works carried out under this study are summarized below.
The works carried out in the feasibility study are
i. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, pipe or tunnel) alignment, powerhouse
site, access road, camp site and the river section is carried out.
ii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
Under geological and geotechnical investigations, following studies are
carried out.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological and engineering geological mapping of the project area
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
ii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
d. Core Drilling Works at headworks site, settling basin, inlet portal of the
tunnel, outlet portal of the tunnel, surge tank, powerhouse site, etc. and
tests of core material.
e. Construction material survey and testing which includes identification of
quarry sites for construction material, calculation of quantity of
construction material available and tests for construction material.
iii. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological investigation and studies, following works are carried out.
a. Installation of the both manual and automatic gauge.
b. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall, sediment
concentration.
c. Detailed Hydrological study.
d. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
e. Estimation of peak flood and selection of design flood
iv. Preparation of the alternative project layouts (at least three).
v. Hydraulic and structural design of the project components.
vi. Optimization of the layout, capacity and the individual project
components.
vii. Calculation of the power and energy generated from the project
viii. Preparation of drawings
ix. Conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of Initial
Environmental Examination (IEE) study.
x. Preparation of cost estimate for the project.
xi. Calculation of revenue generated from the project.
xii. Conducting financial and economical studies. (benefit cost ratio, internal
rate of return, payback period, net present worth) xi. Environmental
studies
xiii. Recommendation whether the project should be considered for
construction/implementation or not.
5. Detailed Engineering Design
Detailed feasibility study is carried out if the project becomes feasible as
recommended by the other studies like pre-feasibility and feasibility and this
study prepares the reports and the documents that are required for the
implementation of the project like tender documents, detailed drawings,
construction schedules. In detailed engineering design the studies and
investigations are carried out at more details.
The works carried out in the Detailed Engineering Design are
i. Topographical survey and mapping of the project area including the
headworks site, conveyance (canal, pipe or tunnel) alignment, powerhouse
site, access road, camp site and the river section is carried out.
ii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
Under geological and geotechnical investigations, following studies are
carried out.
a. Identification of the types of the rock, orientation of the discontinuities.
b. Geological and engineering geological mapping of the project area
c. Geophysical Survey (2D-ERT (Electrical Resistivity Tomography) survey or
seismic refraction survey)
ii. Geological and Geotechnical investigations:
d. Core Drilling Works at headworks site, settling basin, inlet portal of the
tunnel, outlet portal of the tunnel, surge tank, powerhouse site, etc. and
tests of core material.
e. Construction material survey and testing which includes identification of
quarry sites for construction material, calculation of quantity of
construction material available and tests for construction material.
iii. Hydrological Investigations and Studies
Under hydrological investigation and studies, following works are carried out.
a. Installation of the both manual and automatic gauge.
b. Hydrological data measurement like discharge, rainfall, sediment
concentration.
c. Detailed Hydrological study.
d. Estimation of the long term mean monthly flows.
e. Estimation of peak flood and selection of design flood
Energy Flow Diagram/Power Grid
• System of transmission of high voltage is called power grid. Modern power
system is served several power plants, which are interconnected to form a
power grid.
• Such power system designed to supply sufficient capacity to supply peak
load and small additional capacity to tale care of breakdown and
necessary maintenance.
• Thus, a power grid is a system in which a series of hydropower station are
functioning at a time with satisfying the demand in electricity to the
people with no disturbance in their works, if any station needed to be
stopped.
• The hydropower station connected with the national power grid system
may be in one river or its basin or different part of country.
• In this this system, shut down of any power station for maintenance will
not affect the consumers because all the stations are connected to grid
and if one power plant fails to deliver power, there are other power plants
connected to it.
Thus power system interconnection is known as power grid system. For isolated
system no linkage with national grid but for inter connected system, there is
linkage with national grid.
Except micro hydropower and few mini hydropower projects all the small and
large hydropower system is interconnected to grid.
The advantages of integrated grid over isolated grid is
a. It increases reliability in the event of a forced or planned outage of power
station
b. Reduction in the total capacity, by effective utilization of plants and by
desired degree of service reliability
c. Economic operation, by combination of different sources of energy such as
coal thermal etc.
Components of Power House are
a. Generation stations: Powerhouse including transformers, switchgear
Transmission lines
b. Load dispatch center
c. Substations
d. Distribution Lines
e. Distribution Transformer
f. Household/Consumers
 Powerhouse A Powerhouse A

Transmission Line Transmission Line

LDC

Load Center
Load Center

Fig: Components of Power System

Energy Flow Diagram:
• Generally electricity is generated from power house in 11V generation
voltage level which is step up to 132KV or 220V voltage level and
transmitted to load center and then step down to 66 KV or 33 KV by 132
kV step down transformers.
• The power is then transmitted to distribution lines by 33KV or 11 KV
voltage level by step down transformer .
• Finally the electricity as connected to consumer in 22 voltage level by
11KV/220V distribution transformer. Whole supply of electricity from
powerhouse to all distribution lines of a power grid is controlled by Load
Dispatch Center (LDC), located at Switchtar Kathmandu.
• The schematic diagram of flow of electricity from powerhouse to
consumer shown below
 Step Up Step down
TL 132 KV TL 66 KV
Turbine Generator
11 KV 11 KV/132 KV 132 KV/66 KV

11 KV/220 V
66/11 KV

11 KV/220 V
Consumers
DL-11 KV

11 KV/220 V

Distribution Transformer

Fig: Power/Energy Flow Diagram

Load Forecasting
The load forecasting is the method of estimating peak load of future
year. The load forecasting is done based on the consumption of
previous year. The load increase is function of the economic condition
of the country.
Higher the affordability of people, higher is the incremental increase in
load. So the load forecast is generally done in three scenario
a. low growth scenario
b. average growth scenario and, c.
c. high growth scenario
The annual peak power demand of INPS reached 946 10 MW during FY
2010/11 Likewise annual energy demand totaled at 4,833.35 GWh.
Compared to previous year figures of 885 28 MW and 4,367.13 GWh,
FY 2010/11 has registered 6.87% and 10.67% growth in Peak Power
and annual energy demand The energy in GWh and peak load in MW
forecasted for Nepal as per annual report of NEA is as shown in table
below and annual increase in annual peak load is presented in figure
below
Reservoir and Storage Zones of Reservoir
Normal Pool Level or Maximum Conservation Level: It is the
maximum elevation upto which reservoir water level will rise
during normal operating conditions. This is the designed
storage level.
Mimimum Operating Level: The lowest water surface level
which has to be kept under normal operating conditions. The
water level should not fall below this level.
Maximum Pool Level or Full Reservoir Level: The maximum
water level upto which the water rises during the worst design
flood is called maximum pool level.
Useful Storage: The volume of water stored between
minimum pool normal pool level is called useful storage or
active storage or live storage.
Dead Storage: Water stored in the reservoir below dead
storage level is called dead storage.
Surcharge Storage: The volume of water stored between normal pool
level and maximum pool level is called surcharge storage. It is also
called flood storage.
Buffer Storage: The amount of storage between dead storage level
and minimum pool level is called buffer storage. This storage is for
submergence of intake.
Bank Storage: When the reservoir is filled up, certain amount of
water seeps into the permeable reservoir banks. This is called bank
storage. This storage increases the capacity of reservoir.
Valley Storage: Even before dam is constructed, certain amount of
water is stored in the stream channel called valley storage. After the
reservoir is formed, the storage increases and the actual net increase
in the storage is equal to the storage capacity of reservoir minus the
natural valley storage. The valley storage thus reduces the effective
storage of reservoir.
Effective storage for flood mitigation = useful storage + surcharge
storage – valley storage
 The following figure shows different storage zones of reservoir.

Maximum Pool Level or High Reservoir Level

Surcharge Storage
Normal Pool Level or Maximum Conservation Level

Useful Storage/Live Storage/Active Storage

Minimum Pool Level
Buffer Storage

Dead Storage Dam

Reservoir Sedimentation
Reservoir sedimentation is a difficult problem economical solution of
which has not yet been developed except by providing a bit greater
dead storage to accommodate the sediment deposit during the life of
the reservoir.
River water normally carries certain amount of silt eroded from the
catchment during heavy rain or due to the high velocity of runoff over
the ground.
The extent of erosion, i. e; silt or sediment load the river water carries
depends on:
a. Nature of soil of watershed
b. Topography of the watershed
c. Vegetation cover of the watershed .
d. Intensity of rainfall, i.e., higher intensity produces higher run-off or
high velocity which erodes and carries silt along with water.
e. Soil conservation and watershed management methods adopted in
the catchment
Reservoir Sedimentation
• The sediment transported may be bed load or suspended load. When river
water with sediment-laden water approaches the reservoir, the velocity
decreases due to greater area. Due to this reduction of velocity, coarser
particles settle in head reaches of the river and while suspended and finer
particles take sufficient time to settle just upstream of the dam. A part of
finer particles may pass through sluice ways to turbines or spillways.
Density currents (stratified flows) in reservoir
Density currents or stratified flows may be defined as gravity flow of
fluid under fluid of lighter density or over fluid of heavier density.
Water stored in the reservoir is clear with lighter density whereas
inflow to the reservoir is muddy and the fluid upstream of reservoir
have two different densities.
The heavy turbid water flows along the channel bottom towards the
dam under gravity slowly in the form of density currents or stratified
flows. This is called reservoir stratification.
Thus, in reservoir, density current is the current or velocity of heavy
density liquid with low velocity below a liquid of lighter density.
The rate of silting or sedimentation may be reduced considerably if the
density current is vented by proper location and operation of outlets
called scouring sluices
Control of sediment in reservoir:
The following are some points to be considered to control
sediment flow in the reservoir.
1. Proper selection of reservoir site
Reservoir should be located upstream of a tributary which
carries large sediment load.
2. Control of sediment inflow
Series of small low dams in sandy river should be constructed to
arrest the sediment upstream reservoir.
3. Vegetation cover
The vegetation cover upstream of reservoir site and on the
catchment area arrests large sediment amount. Hence, proper
care for growth of vegetation is necessary.
4. Soil conservation methods
Soil conservation methods like cover and strip cropping, contour farming, crop
rotations, control over grazing lands, terracing, benching on steep hill slopes,
small embankments prevent erosion and arrest sedimentation.
5. Removal of deposited sediment
Sediments deposited may be removed be excavation, draining and flushing by
sluices after disturbing the sediment by some mechanical and hydraulic method.
6. Removal by sluices during flood time
Sediment inflow with flood water is more. If sluices are provided at various levels
of the dam. sediments in suspension may be removed by opening the sluices
during flood time directly, thereby not allowing sufficient time to settle these
sediments at reservoir bed.
7. Construction of dam in stages
Initially dam is designed for lower depth. When a part of it gets silted height of
the dam is raised to prolong the life of reservoir
8. Afforestation and control of deforestation
9. Construction of check dams
Construction of check dams in series in upstream tributaries of the river having
huge sediment content. Also special treatment for landslide and debris flow area
by constructing series of check dams in channel.
Effect of sediment on reservoir function
1. Loss of storage and service
It affects the useful life of reservoir and directly affects the services
dependent upon the water storage.
2. Sediment deposition at outlet gate
Deposition of sediment is an important consideration in location of scouring
sluices. It is difficult to locate the position without prior model study of the
dam, reservoir in similar catchment.
3. Aggradation of reservoir
Deposition of sediment upstream of reservoir is a common problem. These
deposited sediments form an inflow section in the shape of a delta which
reduces the inflow capacity to rese creating upstream of the river.
Degradation below reservoir Outflow from the scouring sluices, overfall
spillway has sufficient tractive or sediment transporting force. This tractive
force causes initiation of motion of sediment downstream of the dam. Thus
degradation of the channel below the dam takes place.
Trap efficiency of reservoir
Trap efficiency is a measure of sedimentation of reservoir. It is
defined as the percentage of sediment retained in reservoir to
the sediment transported the reservoir by the stream/stream. It
indicates the percentage of sediment deposited in the reservoir
even inspire of taking precautions and measures to control its
deposition.
Total Sediment deposited in the reservoir
Trap efficiency =
Total sediment flowing in the river
It is found by experimental analysis that this trap efficiency
depends on the following factors.
a. Capacity-inflow ratio:
It is the ratio of reservoir capacity to the total water inflow.
b. Silt gradation:
Larger the sit gradation in size, higher is the trap efficiency.
Method of reservoir operation:
Correct location of scouring sluices may decrease trap
efficiency.
c. Shape of reservoir:
When shape of the reservoir is diverging type towards the
dam, deposition of sediment is more.
d. Age of reservoir:
With increase in age, catchment becomes stable, sediment
transportation decreases and best trap efficiency is less
Capacity inflow ratio and trap efficiency:
Capacity-inflow ratio is the ratio of capacity of reservoir to the
total inflow of water into the reservoir.
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
Capacity-inflow ratio= Total inflow into reservoir

This ratio is an important parameter of reservoir as the trap

efficiency is a function of capacity inflow ratio. If the reservoir is
small and inflow is more, most of the inflow passes downstream
as the detention time is small, allowing no time for sediment to
settle i. e. trap efficiency is very small. On the other hand, large
reservoir allows more time for sediment to settle making trap
efficiency large.

Brunt in (1953), presented graphically a relationship between

these two, i.e., trap efficiency and capacity inflow ratio analyzing
data from some existing reservoir. This graph is called trap
efficiency vs capacity inflow curve (Figure 5-8). Figure shows that
the trap efficiency reduces with decrease in capacity inflow ratio.
As the sediment gets deposited in the reservoir, the storage capacity of
the reservoir decreases whereas the inflow to the reservoir remains
constant. Consequently, the amount of sediment trapped in the
reservoir becomes less year by year. silting rate in the reservoir shall be
more in the beginning and as the capacity reduces with time silting
rare decreases. Therefore, complete reservoir silting may take longer
period.
Useful life of reservoir and its estimation
The dead storage in a reservoir is provided to accommodate the
sediment. But when the sediment inflow is more, dead storage within
few years gets fully silted. Even sediment begins to encroach the useful
storage. This encroachment of sediment depends on
1) capacity-inflow ratio
2) sediment size and content in the flow
3) reservoir operation.
4) characteristics of the valley, etc.
The period up to which the reservoir can serve the defined purpose is
called usable life, the period after which the cost of operating the
reservoir exceeds the additional benefits expected from its continuation
is called economic life, design life is generally the useful life, full life
period is that when no capacity is available in the reservoir for useful
purpose (Murthy, 1980; Kulkarni et al. 1994). Useful life is the period
during which the sediment collected does not affect the intended
primary use of the reservoir (Arora and Goel, 1994; Kulkarni et al. 1994,
Agrawal and Singh, 1994).-A Journal of Spatial Hydrology, 2008
.Reservoir sediment at the beginning is higher. When the whole
catchment. becomes stable, inflow of sediment decreases with years
due to fall in trap eficiency and shrinkage of sediment and formation of
delta. The estimation of useful life of reservoir is made by:
a. Working out the capacity-inflow ratio in percentage and finding
annual loss factor for settlement and consolidation of deposited
capacity.
b. Finding the correction which is about 15 per cent of the total over a
period of 200 yrs.
c. Working out trap efficiency ratio for different reservoir capacity,
which may from graphs or tables
d. Ascertaining the total load for a given period, capacity curves are
determined of 25, 50, 75, 100 years, etc. then check up the
 quantity of water in different reservoir.
e. A plot may be developed to show the available capacity in different
res capacity against time period. From this plot it becomes easy to
evaluate the failure period of the project to meet the minimum
basic demand as originally fixed and the taken as useful life of
reservoir
Reservoir losses
There are mainly three types of losses in the reservoir Evaporation losses ,
Absorption losses and Reservoir leakage or percolation losses
a. Evaporation losses:
These are the major losses from a reservoir. This loss is affects surface of the
reservoir, wind speed, temperature, relative humidity etc. Evaporation loss is
usually expressed in mm of water depth and varies from place to place
depending upon the local condition, temperature, relative humidity and wind
etc.
b. Absorption losses:
This loss of water is considerable in the beginning but falls after sometime when
pores get saturated. These losses depend upon the soil forming the reservoir.
c. Reservoir leakage or percolation losses:
Reservoirs being very large, the soil in the reservoir area is permeable. But the
permeability of the soil generally very low but the bank made of badly fractured
rocks or having continuous stream of pores strata may causes serious leakage.
So site should be property investigated and such things should be rectified
Rule curve or Guide curve:
o Guiding tables and curves which are developed in advance, and kept ready for use for the efficient
regulation of reservoir waters, with time, are called rule curve or guide curve. Such guiding curves are
normally required only for flood season, because for the rest year, the reservoir will only discharge water
for hydropower, irrigation and other purpose. Multipurpose reservoir (irrigation, hydropower, flood
control) is operated considering following reservoir regulation principles: The water level in the reservoir
will normally fluctuate between the normal pool level and minimum pool level. The storage between these
two limits of water level, will be maximum conservation of water which is sufficient for satisfying the
irrigation need.

o As water level in the reservoir shall not be allowed to go below the minimum pool level, the firm
commitments for power will continue to generate up to this level of water.
o Maximum water level (MWL):
o Maximum level to which the surface will rise when the design flood
o Minimum water level (MIWL):
o The lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir passes over the spillway under
ordinary condition. The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful and is called dead storage, The
volume of water between normal water level and minimum water level is useful volume and known as
useful storage or live storage.
o Water is utilized by two groups (i) consumer groups, such as water supply, irrigation and (ii) Non
consumer groups, such as hydropower, navigation.
o Normal floods will be absorbed in the capacity laying below the normal pool level. Severe flood shall be
absorbed by the capacity lying between normal pool level and maximum pool level. Spillway starts
discharging water, as soon as the water level starts rising above the normal pool level. Because of heavy
outflow for irrigation purpose and hydropower generation during dry season, the reservoirs are almost in
completely depleted state. Thus just before the monsoon season, almost full capacity is available in empty
form, not only for conservation of water but also to control the flood that may occur duringrains.
o During monsoon, the irrigation demand is minimum and water will be released only for hydropower
generation. The reservoir level will thus continue to rise steadily. The rise in water level is allowed to reach
the normalpool level by the end of monsoon season.

Determination of reservoir storage capacity

The storage capacity of a reservoir may be calculated by following methods.
a. From mass curve of inflow and outflow
• The mass curve of inflow is plotted for the river at the proposed dam site. It is better to plot the mass
curve of inflow for several year rather than an average year.
• The mass curve of demand is also plotted. The mass curve of demand may be straight line if the
demand is at constant rate and may be a curve if the demand is non-uniform. For simplicity, uniform
demand is here considered. However, in reality, the demand is not uniform.
• If the mass curve of inflow does not meet the mass curve of demand, it means, the inflow can not
meet the demand and the demand has to be reduced.
• To determine the storage capacity tangents are drawn at the peak points like A and B. The maximum
difference between the tangent and mass curve of inflow, i. e; AA and BB is found.
• The greater value of AA and BB is the storage capacity of the reservoir.
b. Sequent peak method
In this method following procedure is adopted to determine the storage capacity.
• The monthly inflow and demand values are converted in terms of volumes.
• Calculate the values of cumulative of inflow (ƩI) and cumulative of outflow (ƩO).
• Calculate the difference of cumulative inflow and cumulative outflow, i. e; (ƩI – ƩO) along Y-axis
and time in months on X-axis. The positive values are plotted above the X-axis and negative values
are plotted below the X-axis.
• The plot will show peaks and troughs. The point A is called first peak and points B, C, …. are called
sequent peaks. Similarly, A1 is called first trough and A2, A3, …………. etc. are called sequent
troughs.
• The maximum distance between the peak and following trough such as A and A 1, B and B1 and so on
are calculated, i. e; V1, V2, V3 etc. are calculated. The maximum of V1, V2, V3, …… is the storage
capacity.

Selection of Suitable Reservoir Site

Following points shall be considered while selecting the ideal reservoir site.
• The good location for dam should be available.
• The reservoir should submerge minimum settlement, agricultural land.
• The reservoir site should avoid the tributaries that carry huge sediment.
• The geology of the reservoir site should be stable.
• The loss from the reservoir such as seepage, percolation and absorption loss should be minimum.
• The reservoir site shall not contain rocks like limestone, which form cavities inside.
• The narrow gorge shall be available for construction of dam so that length of dam is minimum.
• The reservoir capacity shall be enough to store sufficient water.
• The reservoir shall be deep so that minimum land is submerged and cost of land acquisition is
low.
Load Forecasting
• Lod forecasting is the method of estimating peak load of future year. The load forecasting is done
based on the consumption of previous year.
• The load increase is a function of the economic condition of the country. Higher the affordability
of people, higher the incremental increase in load. So, load forecast is generally done in three
scenario, a. low growth scenario, b. average growth scenario and c. high growth scenario.
• The load forecasting made by WECS (Water and Energy Commission Secretariat) has considered
all these scenarios of economy. The low growth scenario with annual growth of 4.5 %, average
growth scenario with annual growth of 7.2 % and high growth scenario with annual growth of 9.2
%.
• The various sectors of economy considered are agriculture, construction, mining, manufacturing,
basic materials, machinery and equipment, non-durable goods, service and energy. These sectors
are considered in load forecasting made by WECS.
• Load forecasting is generally done in short term (1 hour to 1 week), medium term (1 week to 1
year) and long term (more than 1 year).
Load forecasting is essential for
• Capacity planning
• Network Planning
• Generation and transmission capital investment
• Financial forecasting
• Efficient Power Procurement
• Selling of Excess Power
• Planning of fuel ordering
 • Optimum Supply Schedule
• Renewable Planning
• Fuel Mix Selection
Methods of load forecasting may be different depending on the complexity of the system.
Generally following methods are used.
a. Class wise consumption:
• The load forecasting is done by class wise consumption such as domestic, industrial,
agricultural, commercial, etc.
• The load forecast made by NEA whose final report was published in July 2015 has used this
method.
b. Trend Analysis
• Trending methods are widely used as a tool for forecasting which works with historical data,
extrapolating past load growth patterns into future.
• Trending techniques involve fitting trend curves to basic historical data adjusted to reflect the
growth trend itself.
• This type of analysis technique was used by load forecast methods of NEA in past
• The trends may be
i. Linear trend
ii. Non-linear trend (Quadratic)
iii. Exponential trend
iv. Cumulative average growth rate (CAGR)
c. Multi Variable Regression
• The econometric method determined energy demand by considering the influence of
independent variables, such as
i. Population
ii. Income
iii. Economic growth
 iv. Cost
v. Industrial Commercial activity and also other economic variables.
• Multi-variable regression analysis is used to establish the correlation between selected socio-
economic-energy variables and energy consumption data using the past sample data.
d. End Use
• This methodology is based on specifying those activities that give rise to sales or
consumption of electricity demand.
• This method, decomposes the sales of electricity into its elemental component of
consumption, For example, in the case of domestic, the demand is decomposed into
i. space heating
ii. water heating
iii. cooking
iv. lighting
v. refrigeration and others.
• These components are explained in terms of physical and technical parameters as economic
factors.
• End user models are sometimes called ‘disaggregated’ or ‘bottom-up’ or physically based
modeling approaches.
Table 1: Load forecast by NEA and WECS(NEA on left and WECS on right)
Gross Head and Net Head Estimation
Gross Head (Hg) : Gross head is the theoretical head available on the
project.
Hg = Headwater level – Turbine Center line Elevation incase of impulse
turbine (e. g; pelton turbine)
Hg = Headwater level – Tail water level incase of reaction turbine
turbine (e. g; francis, kaplan, propeller turbine)
Headwater Level: It is the elevation of water surface from which flow
begins in the hydropower project. It is the elevation of normal pool
level of reservoir in case of storage project and elevation of water level
at intake in case of RoR project.
Tail water Level: It is the elevation of water surface after flowing from
turbine in case of reaction turbine. To maintain tail water level, tail
water pond may be provided in some projects. If tail water pond is not
provided, river water level acts as tail water level.
Fig: head estimation in case of reaction turbine (kaplan, francis)
 Final Static Level

hf
Initial Steady Level
Surge Tank hg
hnet
`

Tail Water

Fig: Head estimation in case of impulse turbine (e. g; pelton turbine)

Introdution:
Dam is a barrier across the river to store water in upstream side and to raise water level. Dams and
weirs are primarily intended to divert the river flow into the water conveyance system leading to
the powerhouse. Dams also produce additional head and provide storage capacity. Hence the dam
fulfils two fundamental functions, namely it
a. Develop a reservoir which has a capacity to store water and
b. Builds up head and thus, potential for the river water
Dam classification
Dams may be classified in various ways such as (i) Function (ii) Construction material (iii) Structural
load transfer mode (iv) Hydraulic condition (V) Based on Rigidity
A. Classification of dam based on its function
Based on the function, the dam is classified as storage dam, diversion dam, detention dam and
coffer dam.
1. Storage dam or Conservation dam
Storage dams are constructed to impound water during periods of surplus supply for use during
periods of deficient supply. These periods may be seasonal, annual, or longer (pluri-anual). Many
small dams impound the monsoon (excess) runoff for use in the lean season. In the upstream of
this dam a big reservoir is formed Storage dams may be further classified according to the purpose
of the storage, such as water supply, recreation, fish and wildlife, hydroelectric power generation,
Irrigation, etc or multipurpose. T Storage dam are usually high height and they may be constructed
by concrete, stone, earth and rockfill
2. Diversion Dams
Diversion dams are constructed to provide head (raise water) for carrying water into ditches, canals
or other conveyance structures. The height of the dam is, therefore small as no reservoir is to be
formed to store water.
3. Detention dam
Detention dam is constructed to store flood water temporarily and to release it at slower rate than
the incoming flood. A detention dam reduces the peak of flood as it stores the flood water and
releases at slower rate. The main purpose of a detention dam is flood control.
4. Coffer dam:
Coffer dams are temporary dams constructed to divert water and keep the working area dry to
facilate the construction of main dam.
B. Classification based on the construction material
Based on the material used for construction, the dam may be classified as
a. Concrete dam
b. Earthen dam
c. Masonary dam
d. Steel dam
e. Timber dam
f. Rubber dam
a. Concrete dams
They are made either from plain cement concrete or reinforced concrete. They may be
gravity dams or may be in form of arch, buttress or any other form of dams.
b. Earth fill dams:
Earth fill dams are the oldest types of dams. This dam structure consists of local soil
mainly. This dam is not 100% impervious. Water percolates through the body of the
dam but rate of percolation is kept under check and percolation line of hydraulic
gradient line of percolating water is not allowed to get exposed anywhere. This dam
does not require much of skill. They also prove economical as mostly local soil is used
in their construction. The biggest drawback of these dams is that they cannot be
constructed in large heights.
c. Rockfill dams:
These dams mostly comprise rock boulders. Only boulders cannot prevent the flow of
water and as such some impervious layer is laid on the upstream face of the Dam,
which may be in form of cement concrete slab or earth covered by rip rap or any other
arrangement, Rockfill provides the stability whereas impervious provides
imperviousness to the dam to prevent flow of water through them.
d. Masonry dams: They are made from stone masonry in cement mortar They are
mostly gravity dams.
e. Steel dams: They are not used much. They are used as secondary purpose or small
dams.
f. Timber dams: They are also secondary nature and used for storing small amounts of
water temporarily.
 3D View of concrete Gravity Dam

Bhakra Dam India, A concrete Gravity Dam

 Non Overflow Section

Overflow Section

Cross Section of Gravity Dam

Fig: Concrete Face Rockfill Dam
Fig: Arch Dam Fig: Butress Dam
Fig: Butress Dam
Butress Dam Arch Dam
C. Classification based upon the structural load transfer mode
1 Gravity dam
2 Arch dam
3 Butress dam
On the structure of the dam, different forces are acting on it. The foundation on which they are constructed
are all together different and hence, structural design is ought to be different and thu they are classified as
1. Gravity dam
It is a solid concrete or masonary dam in which all the pressure like-water, wave, uplift etc. are resisted
weight or gravity forces. Advantages of gravity dam are as follows
1. It is a strong and stables dam.
2 it can be used as overfall spillway to dispose of excess flood water safety If suitable separate place is not
available for installation of spillways, they can be installed in the
dam section itself.
3. They are especially suitable for deep sleep valley conditions where no other dam is
possible.
4. It can be constructed to greater height if foundation is suitable to resist its load. Height of other dam has limitation.
5. It can be constructed in the area of heavy downpour. If any other dam is constructed in such areas, slope may be
washed by heavy downpour. 6. Maintenance cost is very low.
7 Its failure is not sudden. Sufficient time is possible for evacuation of downstream il a failure is imminent
8. Gravity dam can provide deep scouring sluices to dispose sediment downstream. Trap efficiency of reservoirs is less
than any other types of dam
9. Although initial cost of construction is higher, considering is useful the spa, beneft-com ration is higher and it
becomes cheaper in the long run
10. Drainage galleres are possible in gravity dam.
11. They are not affected by very heavy rainfall Earthen dams can not sustain very heavy rain because of heavy
erosions.
Disadvantages of gravity dam are as follows
1. Gravity dam can be best if constructed on rock foundation is not suitable for weak and permeable foundation even
with foundation treatment
2. If funds are limited, gravity dam cannot be constructed as initial cost of construction is quite high although life is
long.
3. Construction requires transporting heavy mechanized plants, concrete, i. e; stone chips, cement, sand etc. If it is
very difficult to transport those heavy materials for the construction, more time will be spent in construction.
4 It requires skilled labour and mechanized plants for construction
5. Subsequent rise of the dam cannot be made unless some provisions are kept in intal construction.
2. Arch dam
An arch dam is curve in plan, arching between two abutments of the river with convex face towards the
flow of water. Self weight of this dam is quite less compared to the gravity dam and hence water
pressure on upstream face is resisted to a major extent by the arching action of the abutments. As the
base area is quite small, uplift pressure is almost negligible. A major force in the dam is water pressure.
The arch dam can be constructed by constant radius arch dam, variable radius arch dam and constant
angle arch dam.
Advantages of arch dam are:
1. It is suitable in deep gorges where depth is quite high compared to its width. In such conditions, arch
dams prove even more suitable than gravity dams.
2. As the thickness of the dam is much less than its height, a substantial saving in concrets makes the
dam quite cheaper.
3 Because of less base width, uplift force in arch dam is less and usually neglected in design.
4. An arch dam is suitable in moderate foundation since all small part of water pressure is transferred to
the foundation by cantilever action.
Disadvantages of arch dam are:
1. Specialized design, skilled labour and sophisticated form work are necessary in the construction.
2 Construction time is normally higher.
3. To resist arch thrust, strong abutments on solid rocks are necessary. Hence it is not suitable if such solid
rocks are not available.
3. Buttress dams
This dam consists of a number of piers that divide the total length of the dam into a number of spans. All the
spans are then covered either with inclined concrete slab or arches on the upstream side of the piers. If
spans are covered with flat inclined slab buttress dam is known as deck type. If spans are covered by arches
the resulting dam is known as multiple arches buttress dam. The elements of this dam are the sloping slab,
buttress, mat foundation, and lateral braces. Braces are provided to reinforce the buttress. Cut-off walls may
also be provided to prevent seepage.
The advantages of buttress dams are as shown below
1. They can be constructed on weak foundation because they are less massive than gravity dams.
2 The load of water lying on the inclined deck slab adds to the vertical component of the dam and as such
helps in increasing the stability of the dam. The factor of safety in caseof buttress dams is far greater than for
gravity dams.
3 Since ice tends to slide over the inclined U/S surface, ice pressure does not carry any significance.

4 Height of buttress dams can be increased by
extending both buttresses and deck slab.
5. Power houses or other plants can be located in
the empty space between buttresses
6. They require only half to one-third amount of
cement concrete in relation to the concrete
required for gravity dam for the same height. The
cost is not reduced by the same proportions as
increased cost is required for form work and
reinforcement
7. Because of space between buttresses, it is
possible to reach tile back space of deck slab. By
reaching here periodic inspection of foundations
etc, can be carried out.
8. Since exposed surface of concrete is more but
volume of concrete is less than the gravity dam,
heat dissipation during construction is achieved
better. Also speed of construction can be increased
as thinner sections do not cause any problem for
cooling.
Disadvantages of buttresses dam
1. More skilled labour is required.
2. Shuttering cost is more.
D. Classification based on the hydraulic design
Based on the hydraulic design of dam, dams may also
be classified as overflow or non overflow dams.
Overflow dams are designed to carry discharge over
their crests or through spillways along the crest.
Concrete is the most common material used for this
type of dam.
Nonoverflow dams are those designed not to be
overtopped. This type of design extends the choice of
materials to include earthfill and rockfill dams.
E. Classification based upon the head
Head <15 m, low head plant
Head = 15 m to 50 m, medium head plant
Head > 50 m, high head plant
F. Classification based on rigidity
According as rigidity, the dam may be classified as
1. Rigid dams
2. Non-ngid dams
Rigid dams are those which are constructed of rigid
materials like concrete, masonary, steel or timber.
The dams made from materials like earth, rockfill etc
are known as non-rigid dams
Selection of Type of Dam
Selection of dam type depends on the following factors.
1. Construction Material
2. Geological Conditions
3. Topography
4. Spillways
5. Roadway over the dam
6. Life and height of dam
7. Climatic consdition
8. Siesmic condition
Forces acting on Gravity Dam:
The forces acting on gravity dam are as follows.
1. Weight of dam
2. Hydrostatic pressure due to water
3. Uplift pressure
4. Earthquake pressure
5. Wind pressure
6. Ice pressure
7. Wave pressure
8. Silt pressure
 Forces acting on Gravity Dam
• Water pressure
• Uplift pressure or seepage loads
Primary Forces • Self weight of the dam

• Silt pressure
• Wave pressure
Secondary Forces • Wind Pressure
• Ice pressure

Exceptional Forces• Earthquake forces

1. Self Weight of Dam Self weight causes stability of
the dam.
Weight = Specific
weight*Volume = γ*V
= γ*Area*Length
Here, we consider unit length
W2
of the dam.
So,
W1
W1 = γ*A1
W3
W2 = γ*A2
W3 = γ*A3
Here, we divide the dam
geometry into rectangle and
triangles.
γ = specific weight = 24 KN/m3
 2. Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure is calculated
A
as follows.
B
a. Horizontal hydrostatic pressure:
Pv1 • Horizontal hydrostatic pressure
1 2
on upstream = Ph1 = 2*γ*H . It
acts at H/3 from the bottom.
H
Pv3
E C
Ph1 Pv2 Y • Horizontal hydrostatic pressure
X 1
H/3 Ph2 H’ on downstream = Ph1 = *γ*H’2.
2
H’/3 It acts at H’/3 from the bottom.
γH D Z γH’’ • Hydrostatic pressure at
Case a
downstream acts only if there is
water on downstream.

b. Vertical Hydrostatic Pressure:

Vertical hydrostatic pressure will
H Pv3 occur on upstream if the upstream
Ph1 X Y face is inclined or curved like in
H/3 Ph2 H’ case a. In such case, we calculate
H’/3 the vertical water pressure as the
γH Z γH’ weight of water hold by that area.
Case b
Pv1 = γ*Area ABCD
Pv2 = γ*CDE
On downstream face, if there is water, vertical hydrostatic pressure always
act as this face is always inclined.
Pv3 = γ*Area XYZ
3. Uplift Pressure:

H H

Drainage Gallery H’
H’

γHd

γH
γH

’
’

γH
γH

With Drainage Gallery Without Drainage Gallery

The uplift pressure force must be calculated by area of the pressure diagram.
If the drainage gallery is provided, the uplift pressure is reduced at the drainage
gallery.
The pressure head at the drainage gallery is given by
𝐻−𝐻𝘍
Hd = H’ + 3
4. Earthquake forces:
The earthquake force may act in both horizontal and vertical directions.
Horizontal component of earthquake, PHE = W*αH
Where, W = weight of the dam
𝑎
αH = coefficient of earthquake in horizontal direction = 𝐻
𝑔
aH = component of earthquake in horizontal direction
Vertical component of earthquake, PHV = W*αV
Where, W = weight of the dam
𝑎
αv = coefficient of earthquake in horizontal direction = 𝑉
𝑔
aV = component of earthquake in vertical direction
We have to check the stability of the dam considering the horizontal force and
vertical force in both directions.
5. Silt Pressure
If Hs is the height of silt deposited
On upstream face of the dam, then
a. Horizontal component of silt pressure Pvs
Phs = ½*Ka* γs’* Hs2 P Q
This acts at Hs/3 from the base. HS P H’
hs
Vertical component of Silt pressure HS/3
R
Vertical component of silt pressure is
equal to the weight of silt retained by the dam.
PVs = weight of silt deposited
= γs’*Area PQR (Because length = 1m)
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛ϕ
Ka= 1+𝑆𝑖𝑛ϕ = Coefficient of active pressure and φ is the angle of internal friction of the
silt.
6. Wave Pressure
Waves are generated on the surface of reservoir by the blowing winds, which causes a pressure towards
downstream side.
The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action is given by
Pw = 2.4*γw*hw
Where, hw = height of wave
hw = 0.32*√𝑉 ∗ 𝐹 + .763 - .271*F3/4 For, F<32 Km
hw = 0.032*√𝑉 ∗ 𝐹 for F > 32 Km, where, F = fetch of reservoir in Km and V = wind speed in Km/hr
The hydrodynamic pressure force is Pw = 2* γw*(hw)2 and it acts atc 3/8* hw from surface of water.

Failure Mode of Gravity Dams

1. OVERTURNING
• If the moments of the destabilizing forces (such as water pressure on the upstream face and uplift)
about the toe ofthe dam exceed those of the stabilizing forces (mainly the weight of the dam), the
dam can overturn.
• For safety against overturning.
• F.O.S = 𝜮 𝑴r / 𝜮 𝑴o ≥ 1.5

• Mr = Resisting Moment

Mo = Overturning Moment

2. SLIDING FAILURE
• A gravity dam may fail in sliding at any horizontalplane.
• The dam as a whole may slide over the foundationor one part of the dam may slide over the part of
dam itself laying below it.
• The failure occurs when the sum of the horizontal forces causing sliding above that plane is more than
the resistive forces.
• The resistance to sliding may be due to friction alone or combination of friction and shear strength
of the joint.

• Shear strength may be obtained at base

byproviding benched
foundation and at other planes by
laying joints carefully to obtain proper
bond.
• In low dams, the safety against sliding
should be checked only for friction, but
in high dams, for economical precise
design, the shear strength of the joint
isalso considered.
• Considering only frictional force (SF)
μΣ𝑉
F.O.S =
Σ𝐻
This factor of safety should be greater than 1.

• Considering Shear strength as well (SFF)

μΣ𝑉+𝐵∗𝑞
SFF = F.O.S =
Σ𝐻
This factor of safety should be greater than 4.
SFF = Shear friction factor
Where µ = coefficient of static earth pressure= 0.65 to 0.75
𝜮𝑽 = Net vertical force
𝜮𝑯 = sum of horizontal forces causing sliding
q = shear strength of the joint (14 kg/sq.cm)
B = width of the joint
4. Failure by Tension:
If the resultant force passes through the center of base of the dam, the compressive stress would be acting
uniformly along the base of dam and the tension would not develop.
Since, in all dams the resultant does not pass through the center of base of the dam, eccentricity is said to be
developed.
If resultant lies towards the toe, the maximum compression will develop at the toe and minimum
compression will develop at the heel. If minimum compression comes out to be negative, tension is said to
be developed.
Here we will calculate the stress acting on the dam considering the resultant lies towards the toe. This
condition occurs when the reservoir is full. In this condition, the compressive stress at toe is more than at
heel.
If the reservoir is empty, the resultant lies towards the heel and the compression will be more at heel and
less at toe.
The normal stress at toe,
Σ𝑉 𝑒
Pn,toe = *( 1+ 6* )
𝐵 𝐵
Where, Σ𝑉 = net vertical forces.e =
eccentricity.
The normal stress at heel,
Σ𝑉 𝑒
Pn,heel = *(1 - 6* )
𝐵 𝐵
 The Pn,toe and Pn,heel act in vertical direction.

• Here, eccentricity is calculated by

• e = B/2 - X̅
𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑡
• X̅ =
Σ𝑉
• Here, Mnet = Net moment acting on the dam
• = ΣM0 – ΣMR

• ΣV = Net vertical forces

A dam will fail by tension if compressive stress at the heel is negative.
i. e; Pn,heel < 0

Ʃ𝑉 𝑒
Or, 𝐵 *(1-6*𝐵) < 0
Or, e > B/6
Or the eccentricity is more than B/6.
For dam to be safe against tension, the eccentricity should be less thanor equal to B/6. That means, e≤ B/6

When
e<B/6
(Safe)
When
e=B/6

When
e>B/6
5. Failure By Compression:
The normal stress is not the maximum
stress that will be developed in the dam
body. For this we have to calculate the
principal stress.
Principal Stress:
The maximum/minimum stress H
developed is calledprincipal stress.
αus αds
Pmax,toe H’
Pmax,heel

Pn,heel Pn,toe
• The principal stress at toe is calculated by following formula.
• Pmax,toe = Pn,toe *Sec2αds – γH’* *tan2αds
• Here, Pmax,toe = principle stress at toe
2 2
• Pmax,heel = Pn,heel *Sec αus – γH*tan αus
• The permissible compressive stress must be more than the principle stress
acting on the dam.
• Here, eccentricity is calculated by
• e = B/2 - X̅
𝑀
• X̅ = 𝑛𝑒𝑡
Σ𝑉
• Here, Mnet = Net moment acting on the dam
• = ΣM0 – ΣMR
• ΣV = Net vertical forces
The dam will fail by compression if the principal stress acting on the dam is
more than the permissible compressive stress of the dam material.
The foundation material will fail by compression if the normal stress acting is
more than the permissible compressive stress of foundation material.
SELECTION OF DAM SITE
1. Should be selected in narrow valley to reduce the length of dam.
2. Major portion of the dam should be on high ground to reduce cost
and drainage facility.
3. Good foundation at moderate depth should be available at the
dam site, for safe and cheap construction.
4. Bed and sides of the river should be fairly water tight and basin
should be cup shaped as far as possible.
5. Construction materials should be locally available.
6. Good transport facility to dam site is essential.
7. A healthy climate, spacious accommodations for staff quarters
are necessary.
8. For large capacity of storage, dam site is best located at the
confluence of two rivers.
9. The best site of diversion dam is the location where
waterway length is minimum.
10. The submergence area of the reservoir should be
minimum.
11. Catchment should be non-erodible upstream of the dam
which is essential to reduce silting of the reservoir.
12. Location of suitable spillway should be available.
13. Dam site should avoid or excludes water from those
tributaries which carry a high percentage of silts.
14. The site should have less percolation loss.
15. The site should be selected where catchment is maximum.
16. The dam site should provide deep reservoir with small
water surface to reduce evaporation loss and submergence
area and to control weed growth.
Foundation Treatment of Gravity Dam
The material underlying the base of a dam, i. e. the foundations of the
dam must be strong enough and capable to withstand the foundation
pressure exerted on it under various conditions of loading in dry as well
wet condition. Besides the special remedial measures in particular cases,
the foundation treatment commonly adopted for all foundations can be
divided into two steps:
(1) Preparing the surface and
(2) Grouting the foundations.
These treatments are briefly discussed below:
(1) Preparing the Surface.
The surface preparation consists in removing the entire loose soil till a
sound bed rock is exposed. The excavation should be carried out in such a
way that the underlying rock is not damaged. The final surface obtained
above is stepped, so as to increase the frictional resistance of the dam
against sliding. The stepping of the foundation and provision of a shear
key is shown in the figure. The shear key may sometimes be provided in
the center but is generally provided at the heel.
 Preparation of Foundations and Provision of Shear Key
If faults, seams, or shattered rock zones are detected in the exploratory geological
investigations, special steps and remedies must be taken to ensure their removal. They
may have to be entirely excavated and back-filled with concrete grouting. The
treatment will depend upon the specific needs. The top foundation surface is
thoroughly cleaned with wet sand blasting and washing before the concreting for dam
section is started to be laid.
(2) Grouting the Foundation. The foundation grouting can be divided into:
(a) Consolidation grouting; and
(b) Curtain grouting.

(a) Consolidation grouting.

The entire foundation of the dam is consolidated by grouting. For this
purpose, shallow holes (called B holes) are drilled through the foundation
rock. The depths of these holes generally vary between 10 to 15 m. They
are situated at about 5 to 20 m apart, in the general area of the heel of the
dam. After the holes have been drilled, mixture of cement and water
(called grout) is forced into the holes at low pressure of about 30 to 40
N/cm². This is accomplished, before any concreting for the dam section is
laid. This low pressure grouting will result in a general consolidation of the
foundations. These low pressure grout holes will later serve the purpose of
a cut-off against leakage of high pressure grout, which is to be used after
some concreting of the dam has taken place.
(b) Curtain Grouting.
It helps in forming the principal barrier or a curtain against the seepage through
the foundations, and thus reduce the uplift pressures.
To accomplish this high pressure grouting, relatively deeper holes (called A
holes) are drilled near the heel of the dam.
The spacing of the holes may vary from 1.2 to 1.5 m. Holes are first of all, drilled
and grouted at about 10 to 12 m apart, and then the intermediate holes are
drilled and grouted.
The depths of the holes vary from 30 to 40% of the total upstream water head
for strong rock foundations, and may be as much as 70% of the water head for
poor rocks.
After the holes have been drilled, a mixture of cement and water (i. e; grout) is
forced into the holes under high pressure.
The grouting pressure may be kept as high as possible without lifting the
foundation strata. Usually, the foundation pressure used in this high pressure
grouting is equal to 2.5 D N/cm², where D is the depth of grouting in metres
below the surface.
This grouting is generally done in stages of depth equal to 15 m or so, and
carried out only after some portion of the dam section has been laid.
This grouting may have to be accomplished from the foundation gallery or from
other galleries within the dam.
It may also be done from the upstream face of the dam, if possible. In certain
special cases, this grouting may have to be accomplished from tunnels driven
into the foundation rock below the dam.
Elementary Profile of A Gravity Dam:
Elementary Profile of a dam is a right angular triangle with water up to it’s
crest and top width equal to zero. The factor of safety is equal to 1. The
dam is just sufficient to resist the stresses. The forces acting on the
elementary profile of dam are weight, hydrostatic pressure and uplift
pressure.
Embankment/Earthen Dams
• INTRODUCTION
An embankment dam, as defined earlier, is one that is built of natural
materials. In its simplest and oldest form, the embankment dam was
constructed with low-permeability soils to a nominally homogeneous profile.
The embankment dam consists of locally available construction materials such
as clay, sand, gravel, boulders and sometimes concrete may also be used.
In embankment dam, the strength is provided by coarser materials like sand,
gravel, boulders and the seepage control is done by clay or concrete.
Component Parts of Embankment Dams
• Casing
• Rock toe
• Pitching
• Turfing
• Berms
• Drains
• Transition filters
Classification of Earthen Dams
1. Based on Method of Construction
a. Rolled fill earthen dams
b. Hydraulic fill earthen dams
2. Based on Section of Dam
a. Homogenous Earth Dams
b. Zoned Earth Dams
c. Diaphram Earth Dams
1. Based on Method of Construction
a. Rolled Fill Earth Dams
• A rolled filled dam is the one which is constructed in successive,
mechanically compacted layers. The material (sand, clay, gravel, etc.) is
transported from the borrow Pits to the dam site by trucks or scrapers.
• It is then spread within the dam section by Bulldozers to form layers of
15 to 45 cm thickness. Each layer is then thoroughly compacted bonded
with the preceding layer by means of power operated rollers of proper
design weight.
b. Hydraulic Fill
• In the case of hydraulic fill dam the transportation of the material from
borrow pits the dam site as well as its placement in final position in the
dam is done by water.
• In this case at the borrow pits the material is mixed with water to form
slush which is transported through flumes or pipes and deposited near the
faces of the dam.
• The coarser material of the slush stay near the faces of the dam while the
finer ones moves towards center and get deposited there. This would
provide a dam section with shoulders of coarse-free draining material and
an imperious central core of fine grained material as clay and silt.
• In this method no compaction is required
b. Hydraulic Fill
• In the case of hydraulic fill dam the transportation of the material from
borrow pits the dam site as well as its placement in final position in the
dam is done by water.
• In this case at the borrow pits the material is mixed with water to form
slush which is transported through flumes or pipes and deposited near the
faces of the dam
2. Based on Section of Dam
a. Homogenous Earth Dams
• A purely homogeneous type earth dam is composed of single kind of a
material, dams are usually built of impervious or semi-impervious soils, but
several successful have been built of relatively pervious sands and sand
gravel mixture.
• These dams are used only for low to moderate heights.
• A purely homogeneous section has been replaced by a modified
homogeneous section in which internal drainage system in the form of a
horizontal drainage blanket. or rock toe or a combination of both is provided.
• By providing drainage system, dams with much steeper slopes may be
designed and also the phreatic line (or top seepage line) is kept well within
the body of the dam
 Fig: Homogenous Embankment Dam

Fig: Zoned Embankment Dam

b. Zoned type dam
• A zoned embankment dam is composed of more than one kind of
material. This is most common type of a rolled fill dam in which a central
impervious core is flanked by zones of materials considerably more
pervious.
• The pervious zones enclose, support and protect the impervious core. The
upstream pervious zone provides free drainage during sudden drawdown
and the downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to control the phreatic
line
• The impervious core checks the seepage.
• The pervious zones may consists of sand, gravel, cobbles or rock or
mixtures of these materials while the core consists of impervious soil such
as clay, silt, etc.
c. Diaphragm embankment type :
In a diaphragm type earth dam the bulk of the dam is constructed of
pervious materials, (i.e. sand, gravel or rock) and a thin core usually known
as diaphragm of impervious material is provided to check seepage.
As such these dams are also sometimes known as thin core dams
The position of the diaphragm may vary from a central vertical core to a
blanket directly on the u/s face of the dam and in between these extreme
positions there may be several intermediate positions of the diaphragm in
which an inclined diaphragm sloping upstream may be provided.

Fig: Diaphram Type Embankment Dam

Causes of Failure of Earthen Dams
The main causes of failure of earthen dam are
a. Seepage Failures
b. Structural Failures
c. Hydraulic Failures
d. Earthquake failures

a. Seepage Failures
More than 33 % of earthen dam failure are due to seepage. Seepage always
occur in earth dams. It does not harm its stability if it is within the design
limits. But excessive seepage will lead to failure of the dam.
More serious is the seepage through the body of dam. It is due to transport of
soil particles with seepage flow. It results in gradual formation of drain from
u/s to d/s through which water flows and thus the dam fails.
Fig: a Fig: b

Fig a: Seepage in dam

Fig b: Seepage through body of dam
Fig c: Seepage through foundation of dam

Fig: c
b. Structural Failures
About 25 to 30 % of the dam failure are due to this reason. The types of
structural failure are.
a. u/s and d/s slope failures due to construction pore pressures
b. u/s slope failure due to sudden drawdown
c. D/s slope failure due to steady seepage
d. Foundation slide due to spontaneous liquefaction Failure due to
earthquake
e. Failure by spreading
f. Slope protection failures
g. Failure due to damage caused by borrowing animals
h. Failure due to holes caused by leaching of water soluble salts
c. Hydraulic Failures
1. Overtopping
2. Erosion of u/s slope by waves
3. Erosion of d/s slope by wind and rain
4. Erosion of d/s toe
5. Frost action.
The brief description is shown below.
1. Overtopping
Overtopping means flow of water over the dam crest. Overtopping occurs if
i. The design flood is under estimated.
ii. Spillway capacity is not adequate
iii. Spillway gates are not properly operated
iv. Free board is not sufficient
v. Excessive settlement of the foundation and dam
2. Erosion of u/s slope by waves
The waves developed near the top water surface due to the winds, try to
notch out the soil from the upstream face and may even, sometimes,
cause the slip of the upstream slope.
Upstream stone pitching or riprap should, therefore, be provided to avoid
such failures.
3. Erosion of d/s slope by wind and rain
In the absence of proper slope protection the downstream slope of an
earth dam may get eroded due to rain or high winds.
The rainwater flowing down the slope; may result in the formation of
'gullies' on the downstream slope thus damaging the dam which may
generally lead to partial failure of the dam or in some cases it may cause
complete failure of the dam.
This can be avoided by proper maintenance, filling the cuts from time to
time during rainy season, by grassing the d/s slope and by providing proper
berms at suitable heights so that water has not to flow for considerable
distance.
4. Erosion of d/s toe:

Toe erosion may occur due to two reasons:

i. erosion due to tail water
ii. erosion due to cross currents that may come from spillway buckets.

The toe erosion can be avoided by providing a downstream slope pitching or

a riprap up to a height just above the normal tail water depth.

Side walls of the Spillway (called diaphragm walls) must be of sufficient

height and length, so as to prevent the possibility of the cross currents
towards the earthen embankment.
5. Frost action:
If the earth dam is located at a place where the temperature falls below the
freezing point, frost may form in the pores of the soil in the earth dam.
When there is heaving, the cracks may form in the soil. This may lead to
dangerous seepage and consequent failure.
d. Failure due to earthquake
Most of the failures due to earthquake have occurred only with respect to
those which were constructed before 1920 with inferior design details and
construction methods.
Some of the damages which may be caused to earth dams due to
earthquake as under:
i. Longitudinal cracks at the top of the dam or in the core.
ii. Liquefaction of loose and saturated soil mass in the lower portion of
the dam.
iii. Settlement of the crest of the dam thus reducing the freeboard and
increase the possibility of overtopping.
iv. Shear failure at the base of the dam.
v. Rock slide from the side hills into
the reservoir.
Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dams
If earthen dam has to be safe and stable during construction
and in its subsequent operation, it must be designed
considering following points.
1. The earth dam should never be allowed to be over
topped during heavy flood. This objective can be
achieved by providing spillways of adequate capacity.
2. Sufficient free board should be provided. The freeboard
should be 1.5 times the height of waves. Height of
waves is found by
hw = 0.032 𝑭𝑽 +0.763 – 0.271*F1/4 for F < 32 Km
Or, hw = 0.032 𝑭𝑽 for F > 32 Km. F is the fetch of wave.
Height of dam = High flood level + Free Board
3. Seepage line should remains buried sufficiently on the
downstream face when reservoir full. This will prevent
occurrence of sloughing of the downstream face.
4. Top width of the dam should be calculated using following
formula.
i. B = (H/5 + 3) m for low dams (H<<< 30 m)
ii. B = (0.55*H1/2 +H/5) m for H < 30 m
iii. B = 1.65*(H + 1.5)1/3 m for H > 30 m
5. The dam portion lying downstream of the impervious core
should be properly drained
6. The U/S and downstream slopes should be such that they
are not damaged by pore pressure during and immediately
after construction. The upstream slope varies from 3H:1V to
2.5 H:1 V and downstream slope varies from 2.5 H: 1 V to 2
H : 1 V.
7. The upstream face of the dam should remain stable during
rapid draw downs.
8. The central impervious core should have minimum 3 m
width at the top and side slopes of 1H : 1V on its both sides.
Maximum size of core is fixed by giving side slopes of (X-1/2
H : 1 V) where, X = side slope of dam. For example, if side
slope of the dam is 2.5 H : 1 V, then maximum side slope of
the core would be 2 H : 1 V.
9. Upstream face should be protected against wave erosion
and downstream face against the erosion due to heavy
down pours and strong winds. For this rip rap, revetment o
pitching is down on U/S face and counter berms and turfs
are developed on downstream face.
10. Upstream and downstream slopes of the dam should be
fat. This will ensure safety of the dam against shear failure
of the foundation prevent internal erosion.
11. In order to prevent internal erosion of the soil the seepage
flow through the dam and foundation should be suitably
controlled.
12. Free passage of water, either through holes made by
burrowing animals or by piping should be allowed
13. In areas, frequently subjected to earthquakes, the dam
should be designed considering earthquake resistant
measures
 Rockfill Dams
• Rockfill dams have been defined as follows: “A dam that relies on rock, either
dumped in high lifts or compacted in relatively thin layers, as a major
structural element”
• Rockfill dams may be classified into three groups, depending on the location of
the membrane, as follows: (1) central core, (2) sloping core, and (3) upstream
membrane or “decked.”
• It should be noted that dumping in high lifts has been essentially replaced by
compacting in relatively thin layers. An impervious membrane is used as the
water barrier and can be placed either within the embankment or on the
upstream slope.
• Various materials have been used for this membrane including earth,
reinforced concrete, steel, asphaltic concrete, geomembrane, and wood.
• The upstream slope of rockfill dam is kept between of 1.3:1 to 2.0:1 H:V,
whereas the downstream slope is generally kept 1.3:1 H:V, which roughly
correspond to the angle of repose of loose dumped rockfill and prevent
raveling of the embankment slopes.
• Rock fill dams have characteristics lying between the characteristics of gravity
dams and those pf earthen dams.
• They are less flexible than gravity dams and more flexible than gravity dams.
• The foundation requirements are not as strict and as rigid required for gravity
dams but the foundation requirements are more rigid than those of earthen
dams.
• The steeper slopes are used for rockfill dams and hence, the base width is quite
less.
• The smaller base width and possibility of large scale seepage restricts the
foundation requirements of such dams.
• The rockfill dam consists of various zones including impervious membrane
and other zones.
Coffer Dams
Coffer dams are temporary structures to keep out water so as to permit dewatering
and permit the construction of permanent structures.
Uses of Coffer Dams
The coffer dams can be explained in the sectors explained below.
a. Civil engineering: Underground car parking, foundation, basement
construction.
b. Transport Engineering: Bridge pier, support walls, ramps, groundwater
retention, tunnel work, etc.
c. Water engineering: Bridge piers, walls, ramps, groundwater retention,
scour protection walls, securing embankments, construction of weirs,
barrages, dams, etc.
d. Port construction: Dock works, Jetty works, etc.

Earth fill coffer dams

Rockfill coffer dams
Regulatory Structures
Headworks and General Arrangement of Headworks Components
• The headworks of a Run of River Plants include the structures constructed at the river to divert the water
to the conveyance structures. It includes the weir, spillways, under sluice, divide wall, intake, gravel trap,
approach canal, settling basin. The general arrangement of these components is presented in the
following figure.

Fig: General arrangement of Headworks of Hydropower Project

 Settling Basin
Intake
Undersluice

Headworks of Upper Bhotekoshi Hydropower Project

Settling Basin

Weir/Barrage
Undersluice
General Requirements of Functional RoR Headworks
The requirements of headworks of RoR plants are as follows.
1. Withdrawal of required amount of water: The intake arrangements and operationshould be such that the
plant can withdraw required amount of water.

2. Minimum sediment entry: The location of intake and provision of undersluice controls the sediment entry
in the intake. The intake should be located 1-1.5 m abovethe river bed level to avoid the entry of bed loads.

3. Flood bypass: The spillways and weir portion shall be of sufficient capacity to pass
the flood discharge.

4. Minimum head loss: The entry loss, transition loss and the friction loss should beminimum.
5. Prevent the formation of vortices: If the submergence is not maintained at the intake, the vortices will
be formed. Proper submergence is maintained to avoid theformation of vortices.

6. Prevent the floating debris, trash, ice from entering the conveyance system : Trashracks are used to avoid
the entry of floating debris, trash, etc. in the conveyance system.

7. Simple in construction
Intakes
Intake is a hydraulic structure constructed at the river to withdraw the required quantity of water towards the
conveyance system. Intakes of RoR plants are designed for 10 to 20 % extra discharge than the design discharge
tofacilitate flushing of gravel trap and the settling basin.
General Requirements of Intake:
a. Withdrawl of required amount of water
b. Prevent the passage of bed load.
c. Prevent the passage of floating debris.
d. Prevent the formation of vortices.
e. Passage of flood water when spillway capacity is inadequate.
Location of Intakes: The intakes of RoR plants are located at the river. Depending upon the layout of the
plants, the intakes are located in the river, at the bank of river and at the pond. The following are general
arrangements of intake.
o The intakes of RoR plants are located on the river or bank of the river.
o The intake of storage plant is located on the hill side or in the dam itself.
Types of Intakes
The following are different types of intakes mostly used in hydropowerprojects.
a. side intake
b. frontal intake,
c. bottom intake
d. Dam Intake
1. Side Intake:
The direction of flow in the intake is perpendicular to the river flow direction. The intake is constructed at the
side or bank of the river. This is the most common type of intake constructed in Himalayan countries like Nepal
where sediment in the river is high. This is suitable in rivers carrying high sediment.
Advantages:
a. Withdraws minimum sediment.
b. Easy in construction
c. Less maintenance cost
d. Longer life
Disadvantages:
a. Withdraws less water.
b. The weir or dam height required is more to withdraw requiredwater.

2. Frontal Intake:
• The direction of flow in the intake is parallel to the river. This intake is situated in the river. This
is not common in Nepalese rivers as it withdraws more sediment. It is suitable in gentle slope
rivers with less sediments and low discharge.
Advantages:
a. Withdraws large quantity of water as compared to side intake.
b. Does not need large height weir or dam.
Disadvantages:
a. Withdraws more sediment.
b. Difficult in construction.
c. Frequent operation and maintenance
3. Bottom or Trench Intake
• The bottom or trench intake is generally constructed in the rivers where the sediment type is boulders.
If the slope of the river is steep, the rivers carry boulders. The sediments in the river is less. The
bottom intake consists of a grille like opening from which water is extracted to the headrace. Before
the intake trench, there is another trench which traps the gravels. This intake is a part of dam body.
This is mostly used in micro hydropower andhill irrigation schemes.
• The features of this intake are:
a. There is very less sediment in the river. The major sediment is boulders. There are two trenches,
 one fortrapping the gravels and one for trapping the water.
b. The river slope in which this intake is beingconstructed is steep.
c. Excess flow is available for flushing even during the fry
season. The flushing is continuous.

Fig: Plan of Bottom Intake Trench

Plan of intake trench

 Section of intake trench

Frontal intake Side intake

Dam intake
4. Dam intake
• This type of intake is provided in the storage projects. The intake is provided within the body of dam.
The penstock or tunnel is embedded at the required level.
 • The components of intake are trash rack in front of dam, a bell mouth entrance and a control gate. This
type of intake is provided in large hydropower with high head.
Design of Side Intake
1. Design discharge:
The design discharge of intake is taken 10 to 30 % more than turbine discharge or design discharge of the
plant. Generally, 20 % extra is taken.
Q = 1.2*Qturbine
2. Invert Level
The invert level of intake (bottom level of intake) shall be 0.5 to 2 meter above the undersluice crest level
(river bed level).
3. Submergence depth
The submergence depth shall be maintained even if river water level is minimum. The submergence shall be
minimum 30 to 5o cm.
4. Height of intake opening
Then, the height of intake orifice = normal water level – river bed level – submergence – height of invert from
the river bed
5. Velocity
The flow velocity through intake shall be less than or equal to 1 m/sec. The velocity through trash rack should
be between 0.6 to 1.5 m/sec.
𝑄
The velocity through the intake, v = , where, A = opening area of intake.
𝐴
The velocity of the trash rack, the spacing of bars, thickness of bars, angle of trash racks are related by
1 𝑡+𝑎 𝑄 1
V0 = * * *
𝐾1 𝑎 𝑆 𝑆𝑖𝑛Ө
Where, V0 = velocity through trash rack
a = space between trash rack bars,
t = thickness of bars,
Ө = angle of trash rack with horizontal
K1 = coefficient related to partial clogging os screen
The head loss through the trash rack is given by
4
𝑡 3 𝑉02
h = K* (𝑎) *2𝑔 *SinӨ

where, K = trash rack loss coefficient

6. Width of intake opening
Assume the velocity through the trash rack.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
The area of rack opening =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
The width of opening =
ℎ𝑒𝑖ℎ𝑗𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Width of single intake orifice =
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

7. Check for discharge capacity

The actual discharge through the orifice is
Q = C * A*√2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ ℎ
Where, A = opening area, h = Normal water level in river – water level in canal/gravel trap after intake
C = discharge coefficient = 0.6 to 0.8.
Gravel Trap
• A gravel trap is a structure constructed after the intake that is provided to collect and flush the gravels
that enter the approach canal from river water via intake.
• A gravel trap is designed to remove the particles greater than or equal to 50 mm.
• Gravel trap is generally designed to collect the sediments for 12 hours.
• A flushing system shall be provided at the end of the gravel trap to remove the sediments.
Design of Gravel Trap:
a. Flow velocity
• The flow velocity through gravel trap shall be less than or equal to
• V = a*√𝑑 , where, a = 0.36 for d > 1mm, d = diameter of particle in mm. The velocity calculated
comes in m/sec. e. g. for 5 mm gravel size, V = .36*√5 = 0.8 m/sec
b. Length of Gravel Trap
The length of gravel trap is found by:
𝐿 𝐻
= ,
𝑉 𝑤
𝐻
Or, L = V*
𝑤
where
L = length of gravel trap
H = height of gravel trap
w = settling velocity of particles
c. Width of Gravel trap
The width is obtained by:
𝑄
B=
𝐻∗𝑉
d. Sediment volume
• The volume for sediment deposit is obtained by:
ƞ∗ Q∗C∗T
• Vol = ,
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
where,
 • Q = discharge,
• C = sediment concentration in Kg/m3,
• T = flushing time in seconds
• Ƞ = efficiency of settling in gravel trap

Fig: L section showing side intake and gravel trap

Site Selection of Intake or Selection Location:

d. The intake shall be located such that majority of the bed load is excludedfrom entering the
intake.
e. The intake should be located at geologically stable area.
f. The intake shall be located in the straight section of the river.
g. If the intake structure is to be located on the bend, it should be located in the outer side of the bend.
Because, in a bend, the secondary currents create the spiral flow and the sediment particles are
pushed in the inner side of the bend and outer side of the bend remains full with clear water.
So, the intake structure is located in the outer side of the bend.
Undersluice:
Under sluice is the structure costructed in the river as a portion of weir in the vicinity of the intake
to flush the sediments deposited in front of the intake structure. The under sluice structure shall be
located close to the intake. The under sluice sizing is done such that 10 to 20 % of the flood can be
passed through it. Under sluice is a gated structure and is operated during the monsoon.

Weir
Undersluice
 Weir
• Weir is a raised concrete structure, which is constructed to raise water level in the river so that the design
discharge is diverted to the intake and flood discharge is passed safely in the downstream. If H is the
overtopping height of water, C is the weir coefficient and L is the length of the weir, the flood discharge
that can be passed from the weir is:
• Q = Cw * L * H3/2
Handling of Sediment load in RoR Headworks
a. Handeling of Bed Load
• The bed load is the sediment load which moves along the river bed. This includes the gravel, sand, boulder
and floating debris transported by the flowing water. The handeling of bed load is done by following ways.
1. Under sluice gates are provided at the level of river bed or below the river bed so that the bed load
sediment deposited near the intake can be flushed by operating the under sluice gates.
2. The invert level of the intake is placed 1 to 1.5 m above the river bed level so that the bed load is not
extracted by the intake.
3. The bed load can be minimized by using the gated structure (barrage) for
creating the pond rather than providing the raised weir.
4. Locating intake in the straight reach of the river and on the outer bend if it is to be placed on the bend.
b. Floating Debris:
• The materials like the wooden pieces, plastics, leaves, ice trashes, dead animals that float in water are called
floating debris. Thefloating debris are controlled by
1. Providing trash in front of intake to avoid the entry of floatingdebris in the intake.
2. Providing flap gates at the weir to allow the passage of floatingdebris
c. Suspended Load
• The amount of sediment load that is kept in suspension in thewater due to the turbulence of water is called
suspended load. It is controlled by
1. Providing the gravel trap immediately after the intake in which the
gravels (larger than 5 mm diameter) are settled and flushed
2. Providing the settling basin or desander in which the finer particles are settled and flushed.

Settling Basin
o It is a hydraulic Structure to remove suspended sediments from the conveyance water for power plant
o Sediments can damage the penstock and turbines runnersdue to abrasion
o The main principle of the design of settling basin is to reduce the mean velocity of the flow, by increasing
the cross- sectional area.
o It removes suspended inorganic particles ranging from sand (2 mm in diameter) to silt (0.002 mm in
diameter), depending onbasic design.
o Proper design of settling basin can reduce maintenance cost of the project
Sediment particle size to be removed
The selection of particle size to be removed (dlim) is based on the design head. If the design head is higher, even
a small particle may be harmful to turbines. So, for higher head, sediment size to be removed will be
small. Please be noted that if a settling basin can remove sediment of size 0.1 mm, it can remove all particles
larger than 0.1 mm but can not remove sediment particle less than 0.1 mm size.

Following factors should also be considered while deciding on the value of d

lim
a. If most of the suspended particles contained in water is highly abrasive (quartz or minerals),
lower limiting diameter must be selected
b. Francis turbines are more sensitive to any type of suspended matter and pelton turbines are
intermediate type. The cross flow turbines are relatively less sensitive to soft impurities
Design head (m ) dlinit (mm)
h ≤ 10 m 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm
10 < h ≤ 100 m 0.2 mm to 0.3 mm
H > 100 m 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm
For design of settling basin, the determination of target particle size and
fall velocity or settling veloity is important. The fall velocity is determined
by following equation.
Temperature 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
degree
centigrade
Kinematic 1.792 1.519 1.308 1.141 1.007 0.897 0.804
Viscosity, ν in
centistokes
Fig: Rouse Chart for Calculation of Settling Velocity
 Purpose of settling basin
a. To remove the fine grained suspended matter from water
b. For removal of suspended particles and minimize the wear and tear of the nozzle, turbine runners
and other hydro-mechanical components
c. To reduce the sediment particles entering into the conveyance system so that the conveyance capacity
shall not be reduced

Components of settling basin

a. Inlet transition
b. Settling chamber
c. Outlet zone
d. Sediment flushing system
a. Inlet Transition:
i. It shall be designed to prevent the turbulence.
ii. The approach canal shall have straight alignment for at least 10 times the width before it joins the inlet
transition. If space constraints do not permit the long transition, guide walls shall be provided in the
transition.
iii. The flow velocity shall be 1.1-1.3 m/sec.
iv. The transition should be gradual. Horizontal expansion ratio about 1:5 (angle =7 to 15 degrees) and
vertical expansion ratio about 1:2. (angle = 20 to 30 degrees)
b. Setting Chamber:
i. It is the main part of settling basin.
ii. It should have enough dimensions to settle the sediments.
iii. It may be divided into more than one chambers depending on the size of
the basin
c. Outlet Zone:
i. The operation water level is controlled at the outlet zone.
ii. The outlet zone is designed for decanting the outflow from settling basin over a small weir/spillway or
simple transition structure.
iii. The major structures in the outlet zone are transition to headrace/forebay inlet with or without control
gate mechanism, sediment flushing gates/valvearrangement.
iv. This portion shall also have gradual contraction. The horizontal and vertical transition should have ratio
of 1:2 and 1:1.
d. Sediment Flushing System:
i. The flushing arrangement should be provided to flush the sediment deposited in the basin. It should
ensure that when the flushing gate or valve is opened, the water level in the basin decreases and the
sediment deposited in the bed starts flushing out.
ii. The bed of settling basin provided at some angles to allow the flushing ofsediments. The usual bed slope
 is 1:20 to 1:50, however it shall be calculated as per hydraulic requirements.
iii. This system should be capable of flushing the deposited sediments hydraulically.
iv. The undersluicing of flushing system is designed as a manifold system to withdraw sediment laden
water uniformly along the length of main chanel.
v. The velocity flushing channel should be between 1.75 m/sec to 2.5 m/sec.
Types of Settling Basins Based on Flushing
Based on Flushing, settling basins are of following two types.
a. Continuous Flushing Settling Basins
b. Discontinuous Flushing Settling Basins
The choice between settling basins with continuous or discontinuous flushing basins must be made based on the
topography, availability of water, type and size of power plant, cost of construction, ease of operation and
maintenance, power outage or reduction.
a. Continuous Flushing Settling Basin
Settling basins with continuous flushing shall be designed to supply sediment free water to the water conveyance system through
simultaneous settling of suspended sediments and flushing of deposited sediments.
• The flushing action is continuous.
• It uses 10 to 15 % extra water for flushing.
• No need to shut down the plant for flushing the settling basin.So, the reliability of power plant in power production is more.
• At least two basins are provided for more reliability.
• Special care should be taken for clogging of the flushing system.
b. Discontinuous Flushing Settling Basin
• In this type of basin, the flushing is done after certainduration and at the time of flushing the plant is shut down.
• This type of basin is simple in design and less susceptible to blockage and clogging due to sediments.
• Extra storage volume is required to allow the storage of sediments settled during the flushing interval.
• The plant should be kept shut during flushing if it has a single chamber. If the plant has multiple chambers, the flushing will
be done at different time for different chambers. However, still the plant can not run at full capacity. Hence this type of
settling basin has more outage and is less reliable for power production.
• It releases the sediment laden water with high concentration during flushing and hence pollution is caused in river.
Different Types of Settling Basins:
Following are different types of settling basins.
1. Conventional type settling basin
The basin is dewatered when it is taken out of operation. Sediments may be removed manually or by mechanical
equipment after the basin is dewatered. Deposited sediments may also be removed by lowering water level inside
the basin and generating swift flow in free surface gravity flow thought the basin a conventional flushing system.
The power plant is closed when flushing operation is continued. So two chamber settling basin is constructed
for continuous operation of the plant.
2. Hooper Type Settling Basin
Water level and water flow is maintained in the basin throughout the flushing period in order facilitate continuous
power generation. Removal of sediments while the basin is operational may be achieved with continuous flushing
or intermittent flushing or by use of some kind of suction or dredging device. In order to remove the settled
particles by flushing, it is necessary to generate a current close dredging device the particles, able to erode and carry
the particles away with the flushing flow without mixing with the main water flow in the basin.
3. Bieri Type Settling Basin
In Bieri type of settling basin, the shutter mechanism in the bottom of the basin is made of two plates with a series
of opening. One plate is fixed while other can be moved horizontally. Flushing is facilitated when openings in
each plate falls together. Sensor can be placed in the bottom plate so as to sense the volume of sediment deposited
in the chamber. Once the collected sediment increases the desired level of deposition, one plate moved over
another and sediment is flushed. And after flushing, the plate is again moved and flushing operation stopped. The
settling basin is exists in Middle Marsyangdi hydropower project. This is continuous flushing type settling basin
and it does not affect the plant operation.
4. Serpent Sediment Sluicing System (4S)
Surpentine system is a new type of desanding basin flushing system which was developed by Hakoon Stole at the
Norwegian Institute of Science and Technology. This type of settling basin is constructed Andhi Khola, Jhimruk
Khola and Khimti Khola power plants in Nepal. One or more flushing channels are located at bottom of the
settling basin. The flushing me is connected tothe settling basin by longitudinal slot. A float unit (The serpent)
covers the slope in downstream end. A channel is connected to a flush it.
Fig: Conventional Settling Basin
 Fig: Hoper Type Settling Basin

Fig: Bieri Type Settling Basin

Fig: Serpentine Sluicing
Settling Basin
Design of Settling Basin
L

V
ω Settling Zone
H

Storage Zone
B
L
Settling Zone H
Fig: Plan and L-Section and Cross Section
Storage Zone of settling basin
Velikanov’s Curve
Q2. Design a settling basin with the considerations of turbulence approach,
probability approach (M. A. Velikanov) and trap efficiency (Vetter’s method).
Discharge = 7.5 cumecs, particle size to settle = 0.2 mm, Kinematic viscosity =
1.32*10-6 m2/sec, removal ratio = 95 %.
Tunnel:
Tunnel is an underground passage made without
removing the overburden. Tunnels are the structures
constructed for the conveyance of flow or for the
purpose of transportation, storing the food or
radioactive materials
Fig: Tunnel
Hydro Tunnels
• These tunnels are used for carrying the discharge for power production,
irrigation, water supply or sanitation.
• The hydro tunnels are further classified into
i. Non Pressure Tunnels
• In these tunnels, the flow is open channel flow. These tunnels run in partial
flow conditions.
ii. Pressure Tunnels
• In these tunnels, the flow is pressurized flow.
• These tunnels run in full flow condition.
Advantages of Tunnels:
1. Less Environmental effect
2. Natural landscape of hilly area is not disturbed.
3. Possible shortest and direct way so minimum losses and considerable
economy in the project cost.
4. Less cost in the urban area.
5. Optimum space utilization.
6. Low maintenance cost.
7. Less head loss.
8. Less seismic effect.
9. Easy for inter basin transfer.
10. Reduced risk.
Disadvantage of Tunnels:
1. Normally high construction cost.
2. The construction period is normally long.
3. High construction risk.
4. Expensive investigations.
5. Additional cost for lightening and ventilation.
6. Not feasible for small discharge.

Size of Tunnel
• The minimum size of the tunnel is fixed considering the transportation,
excavation and hauling during tunneling.
• The minimum size of the tunnel should be 2m in case of circular tunnel and
2.1 m in height and 1.9 m in width in case of other shapes.
 Some Terminologies with Tunnel
a. Crown: The uppermost part of tunnel
b. Springe Line: The line at which the
tunnel wall breaks from slopping outward
to slopping inward towards the crown.
c. Invert: The bottom (floor) of tunnel
d. Heading: The excavated face of tunnel
e. Wall: The side of tunnel
f. Portal: The entrance /exit of
tunnel
g. Drift: A horizontal excavation
h. Muck: The material that comes
after excavation of tunnel. Muck
includes pieces of rocks, soil, etc.
Geometric Design of Tunnel
The tunnel geometry depends on the prevailing geological condition and
judgement of the designer. Normally used geometric shapes of tunnel are.
a. Circular section
b. D-Shaped section
c. Horse-shoe shaped section
d. Modified horse shoe shaped section

D-Shape Cross Section

Circular Cross Section

Modified Horse Shoe Shaped Cross Section

Geometric Design od Tunnel Continued
A. Circular Tunnels:
• Circular section is most suitable from structural point of view. However, it
is difficult for excavation, when the cross sectional area is small. If the
tunnel has high internal pressure but poor rock, the circular section is
adopted.
B. D- Shaped Tunnels:
• D-shaped tunnels are constructed in good quality rocks. The bottom flat
invert permits more working space. This tunnel is structurally weak but
better from the point of view of working.
C. Horse Shoe Shaped Sections:
• These sections are intermediate between the circular and D-shaped
sections. These sections are suitable for the rocks with the moderate
strength. The upper circular portion gives the structural strength and the
lower flatter invert provides the working space.
Tunneling Methods
• The different methods of tunnel construction include.
a. Drilling and Blasting Method
b. Tunnel Boring Machine Method
c. Cut and Cover Method
d. New Austrian Tunneling Method
The brief description of the above mentioned method is presented below.
a. Drilling and Blasting Method
• Drilling and blasting is the most common method of tunnel construction in
Nepal.
• The tunnel construction consists of drilling, basting, mucking and hauling.
a. Drilling and Blasting Method contd………
The steps of construction by drill and blast are
i. The holes are drilled in the tunnel face.
ii. The holes are blown clean and then packed with explosives and
detonators.
iii. The explosives are detonated. iv. Tunnel is ventilated.
iv. Rock is scaled.
v. Muck is removed.
vi. Support is installed.
b. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) Method:
• TBM is an alternative to drilling and blasting method. They are
used to excavate rocks in circular cross section through a wide
variety of geological conditions like hard rock, sand, soil or
almost anything in between.
• As the TBM moves forward, the round cutter heads cut into
the tunnel face and splits off large chunks of rock. The cutter
head carves smooth round hole through the rock- the exact
shape of a tunnel. Conveyor belts carry the rock shavings
through the TBM and out the back of machine to a dumpster.
• Different cutters are required for different hardness. Hence, if
the geological condition is changing, the cutters has to be
changed and the tunnel excavation takes long time. Tunnel
boring machine takes short time for cutting if the geological
condition in the tunnel alignment is uniform.
Fig: Tunnel Boring Machine inside the ground
Fig: Tunnel boring machine that was used in Bheri Babai Diversion Multipurpose Project
c. NATM method of Tunnel Construction
• NATM was pioneered by the Austrians in later half of the 20th
century. The tunnel is subsequently excavated and supported,
and the excavation sequences can be varied. In soft ground
tunnels, initial ground support is in the form of shortcrete
usually with lattice girders and some form of ground
reinforcements is installed as excavation proceeds, followed by
installation of final lining at a later date.

d. Cut Cover Tunnel Construction Method:

• Cut and cover is a method of tunnel construction where a
trench is excavated and roofed over. Strong supporting beams
are necessary to avoid the danger of the tunnel collapsing.
Tunnel Supports:
• The tunnel supports are the structures that are installed in the excavated part of the tunnel after the tunnel
has been excavated. The tunnel cross section may be geologically weak or may have been weakened due to
blasting or cutting. To stabilize the section, supports has to be installed.
i. Immediate Support:
• Immediate Support most commonly refers to temporary support measures taken to stabilize recently
excavated ground prior to installation of initial supports. Such measures generally involve external support
systems and may include shields, jacks, timbers etc. or perhaps spray of epoxies or light shortcrete coatings
to limit water migration or weathering issues.
ii. Initial Support:
• Initial Support commonly refers to the first support elements or system of support elements installed to
stabilize the tunnel opening prior to the firstsupport placement. Initial support commonly consists of such
elements astensioned bolts, dowels, wire mesh, shortcrete, lattice girders, steel ribs, etc. These types of
supports are placed at or near the advancing face shortly after excavation.
iii. Ancillary Support:
• Ancillary support refers to additional site specific support measures implemented to address anomalous
ground conditions, changes in tunnel geometry (e. g; intersections of tunnels or shafts), or support used to
reinforce the ground sections that may be subjected to higher applied operational loads (overhead
ventilations or power stations). Ancillary support may be nothing more than alterations in the support plan,
implementing the same support elements, or may involve more toxic ground control measures such as
grout injection, cable bolting, etc.
iv. Final Support:
• “Final Support” includes the finishing support elements of the tunnel most commonly a final
reinforced tunnel lining. In some cases, initial supports may actually serve as the final support for the
tunnel, with no additional tunnel lining required.
Head Loss in Tunnels
The head loss in tunnel occurs in various forms. Some of the types of head loss are.
1. Friction Loss
a. For open channel flow tunnels:
𝑉 2 ∗𝑛2
hf = *L
𝑅4/3
where, hf = head loss
V = velocity of flow in tunnel
R = hydraulic mean depth
L = length of tunnel
n = manning’s roughness coefficient
b. For pressurized flow
𝑓∗𝐿∗𝑉 2
hf =
2∗𝑔∗𝑑
where, f = friction factor of tunnel
L = length of tunnel
d = diameter of tunnel
2. Minor Losses
a. Trash rack losses
𝑉2
h f = K t*
2∗𝑔
𝑎𝑛 𝑎
where, Kt = track rack loss coefficient = 1.45 – 0.45*( ) – ( 𝑛 )2
𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡
where, an = net area through trash rack bars
at = gross area of the openings
b. Entrance Loss
The entrance loss is given by:
 𝑉2
he = Ke*
2∗𝑔
where, Ke = entrance loss coefficient = 0.05 for circular bell mouth entrance and 0.16 for
square bell mouth entrance
c. Transition Loss
The transition loss is given by
𝑉12 − 𝑉22
hf = K*| |
2∗𝑔
where, K = entry or exit loss coefficient
Ke = expansion loss coefficient = 3.5 *tan(Ө/2)1.22
Where, Ө = angle of the tunnel wall with it’s centre.
Kc = contraction loss coefficient = 0.1 to 0.5 for gradual contraction. If the flare angle does not exceed 10 0,
it’s value should be 0.1.
d. Gate Loss:
𝑉2
hg = Kg * , where, Kg = gate loss coefficient
2∗𝑔
e. Exit Loss
𝑉2
The exit loss is given by: hexit =
2∗𝑔
Surge Tank:
Surge tank is a cylindrical tank which saves the low pressure system ( tunnel) against the effects of water hammer. It releases the
water hammer pressure developed in the surge tank due to closure or opening of the valve fully or partially.
Location:
Surge Tank is constructed at the junction of the tunnel and the penstock pipe. A surge tank is usually provided on the upstream of
powerhouse. However, sometimes surge tank may also be provided on the downstream of power house if the tailrace tunnel is long.
Mechanism:
Due to the sudden or gradual closure of the valve, the kinetic energy of flowing water is converted into pressure energy. Because of
this conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy, water hammer pressure wave is developed which moves along the penstock
pipe to the upstream. The water hammer pressure is intercepted by the surge tank and is not allowed to enter the tunnel thus
saving the tunnel from the water hammer pressure. The energy of pressure wave that travels from the valve to upstream
causes water in the surge tank to oscillate. This oscillation brings water up and down in different time in the form of sinusoidal
wave. Ultimately, the friction in the walls of the surge tank causes the damping of the oscillations and water level acquired a stable
final position.

Conditions of Sudden Valve Closure and Opening

a. If the plant is storage or daily peaking type, it will operate incertain hours and may remain shut down in
other hours.
b. If the components such as turbine, gates, valves and otherparts have to be repaired.

c. If the system (Load Dispatch Center) does not assign load to

the plants or rejects production from the plant.

d. If there is problem with transmission line
e. If the plant is under maintenance.
f. If the system (Load Dispatch Center) assigns load to the plantsuddenly which was in shut down condition
Surge Tank
Fig: Surge Tank
 Max Upsurge Level

Final Static Level

hf

Initial Steady Level

Surge Tank

Fig: Surge Operation during load rejection

Valve closed

Load rejection condition means when the valve is to be closed fully or partially
due to decrease in demand.
 Initial Steady Level

hf

Final Static Level

Surge Tank Maximum downsurge Level

Fig: Surge Operation during load acceptance

Valve Open

Load acceptance condition means when the valve is to be opened fully or partially
due to increase in demand.
Functions of Surge Tank
1. To save the power tunnel from the water
hammer effect.
2. To supply water to the turbines when the
plant is suddenly operated from the closed
condition.
3. To act as the storage of water that is required
during the sudden start of the turbine.
4. To save penstock pipe specially when there is
no bypass valve.
Design of Surge Tank
For the design of a surge tank, mass oscillation equation has to be solved.
However, Jaeger has given an approximate solution which can be used for the
design of surge tanks
𝑄 𝐴𝑆𝑇∗𝐿
Theoretical maximum surge = Zmax = 𝐴 𝐴𝑇∗𝑔
𝑆𝑇

𝑄 𝐴𝑇∗𝐿 𝐴𝑇∗𝐿
Also, Zmax = 𝐴𝑆𝑇∗𝑔
= V0* 𝐴𝑆𝑇∗𝑔
𝐴𝑇
Where, Q = discharge in the tunnel
AST = Area of the surge tank
AT = Area of the tunnel
V0 = velocity of flow in tunnel
L = length of headrace tunnel
The time period of oscillation of the wave,
𝐴𝑆𝑇∗𝐿
T = 2¶* 𝐴𝑇∗𝑔
The above formulas of Zmax and T are derived from basic physics.
Types of Surge Tanks
a. Based on the material of construction
• Concrete surge tanks or steel surge tanks
b. Based on the location with respect to the ground
• Underground surge tank or overground surge tank or excavated surge tank/ from surge
tank
c. Based on the location in the hydraulic system
• Upstream side of the surge tank or downstream side of the surge tank:
• Generally surge tank is provided on upstream of power house. However, if the tailrace is long,
surge tank may also be provided on downstream of the power house.
d. Based on the Hydraulic functioning and cross section
i. Simple cylindrical surge tank

ii. surge tank with sloping chamber

iii. Restricted orifice surge tank

iv. Differential surge tank

v. Surge tanks with expansion chamber

i. Simple cylindrical surge tank
• The simple surge tank is of uniform cross section (cylindrical in shape)and opens to atmosphere,
acting as a reservoir.
• It is directly connected to the penstock and has an unrestricted
opening into it and must be of adequate size that it does not overflow.
• It is seldom adopted in preference to other types of surge as it isusually large in size (which makes it
costly).
• The hydraulic action of the simple cylindrical surge tank is sluggish (i. e; the water level rising or
falling is quite slow.)
ii. Surge tank with sloping chamber
• Although a simple chamber is usually vertical it is sometimesconstructed as an inclined tunnel or
pipe.
If a circular tunnel of diameter D, is inclined at an angle of Ɵ to the horizontal, opening area will
be π/4*D2*Sec Ɵ
 simple cylindrical surge tank surge tank with slopping chamber

iii. Throttled tank/Restricted orifice type:

• It has a restricted opening or orifice between pipeline and the tank and hence allows more rapid pressure
changes in the pipeline than the simple surge tank due to loss of head atthe orifice.
• The restricted entry to the surge tank creates the retardation and acceleration condition of flow in the tunnel
upstream to it, thus minimizing the storage requirements and minimizing the maximum up and down surges.
Hence economical than simple surge tanks.
iv. Differential surge tank: (Johnson's differential tanks)
• These are the combinations of orifice type and simple surge tanks of smallcross-sectional area.
• The differential tanks consist of internal narrow riser shaft with an orifice
entry to the large outer shaft at bottom.
• As the central riser is narrow it responds instantaneously during the upward phase at the same time maximum
amplitude is restricted to its top leveland water spills into outer chamber.
• Similarly, during the downward phase, water spills into the narrow riser while the riser itself responds quickly
to maintain the desired level.
• In differential surge tanks, the head building functions is achieved through the riser shaft and the storage
function is achieved through the outer shaft.Due to this sluggishness of the simple surge tank is overcome.
Fig: Differential Surge Tank
Fig: Throttled Surge Tank

Spill

Fig: Surge Tank with Expansion Chamber Fig: Surge Tank with Spilling Chamber
v. Surge Tank with Expansion Chambers
• This type of chamber consists of narrow riser (main surge shaft) attached to it at either and are expansion
chambers. The narrow riser reacts quickly, creating accelerating and decelerating heads, and at the same
time the expansion chambers minimize the maximum up and down surge level thus limiting the range of
surge level.
• The upper reservoir absorbs the rising surges and lower reservoir provides reserve storage when the
turbine is suddenly started or load on the turbine is increased.
vi. Surge tank with spilling chamber
• Limitation of upsurge may be affected by providing the chamber with aspillway.
• The choice of such design is governed largely by economy and involves balancing the saving in chamber
height against the cost of the spillway and the loss of water.
 Penstocks
Penstock is a closed conduit (pipe) that carries water from forebay or surge
tank to the turbine. Penstocks are pressurized water conduits that carry
water to turbines with minimum possible head loss. The size of penstock
should be optimum.
Materials of Penstock Pipe:
The different penstock materials are
a. Mild Steel penstock pipes
b. High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE Pipe)
c. Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC Pipe)
The Following factors have to be considered before deciding the material that is selected for the penstock.
• Design Pressure, method of jointing and Friction Loss
• Weight and Ease of Installation .
• Accessibility of the Site, Terrain and Soil Type
• Design Life and Maintenance
• Weather condition
• Availability, relative cost and transportation.
Type of installation of penstocks
1. Exposed penstock
2. Embedded or steel tunnel liner
3. Buried penstock
1. Exposed Penstocks
• Penstock supported at pier or saddle support or supported in ring girderare the example of exposed
penstock.
Advantages
• Ease in inspection of faults and maintenance
• Economy in rocky terrain and large diameter
• Stability ensured with anchorage
Disadvantages
• Direct exposure of weather effect
• Development of longitudinal stress on account of supports andanchorages, thereby needing
expansion joints.
2. Embedded
• Also called steel tunnel liner
• These are located in a tunnel and fully encased in concrete or encased in aportion of dam.
3. Buried penstock
• Usually fabricated from steel, concrete, plastic or fiberglass.
• May be partially or fully buried
Advantages
• Continuity of supports given by soil so that system becomes strong
structurally
• Protection of pipe against temperature fluctuation
• Conservation of natural landscape
• Protection from landslide, storm and man made violence
Disadvantages
• Difficulty in inspection of faults
• Possibility of slides in steep slopes
• Difficult in maintenance
• Greater expenses for large diameter pipe in rocky or large boulder mixedsoil
Exposed Penstocks
Anchor Blocks and Support Piers
• An anchor block is an essential element of penstock designed to restrain the pipe
movement in all directions. Anchor blocks shall be provided at sharp horizontal and
vertical bends, since there are forces on such bends which will tend to move the pipes
out of the alignment. Anchor blocks are also required to resist axial forces in long
straight sections of penstock.
• Support piers are short columns that are placed between anchor blocks along straight
sections of exposed penstock pipe. These structures prevent the pipe from sagging and
becoming overstressed. However, the support piers need to allow pipe movement
parallel to the penstock alignment which occurs due to thermal expansion and
contraction.
Anchor blocks are required at following locations.
• At vertical or horizontal bends of penstock. A filled penstock exerts forces at such
bends and the pipe needs to be properly anchored.
• Immediately upstream of the power house. This minimizes the forces on turbine
housing.
• At sections of penstock where the straight pipe length exceeds 30 m.

The support piers are required along the straight sections of exposed penstock between
anchor blocks. The maximum spacing of support piers to avoid overstressing of pipe is
generally 5 m.

Fig: Anchor block and support pies

Design a surge tank with following data
Discharge = 60 cumecs, tunnel diameter = 6.5
m, length of tunnel = 7.8 Km, friction factor of
tunnel = 0.028, gross head = 250 m. Find area
of surge tank, maximum upsurge and down
surge

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Fig: Vertical Fall Spillway without Fig: Vertical Fall Spillway with
plunge pool plunge pool

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Spillway Gates
1. Dropping shutters or Permanent Flash Boards
• They consist of wooden panels usually 1.0 to 1.25 m high. They are hinged at
the bottom and are supported against water pressure by struts. The shutters fall
flat on the crest when the downstream supporting struts are tripped. Hence,
they are not suitable for curved crests.
• They are only used on small spillways of minor importance.
2. Stoplogs
• Stoplogs are like vertical gates. They are used as supplementary gates when the
main gate is under maintenance or not working. Stoplogs consist of number of
iron beams placed one over another.
3. Vertical Lift Gates
• These are rectangular gates spanning horizontally between the grooves made in
the supporting spillway piers. These grooves are generally lined with rolled
steel channel sections of appropriate size, as to provide smooth bearing surface
having sufficient bearing strength known as guides. These rectangular gates
move between the groove guides, and can be raised or lowered by a hoisting
mechanism at the top.
• The gates are often made of steel, although they may be made of concrete or
wood.
• A large force is required to lift such gates. The friction in lifting the gates is
overcome by placing cylindrical rollers between the cylindrical surfaces of the
gate and guide grooves.
4. Radial Gates
• A radial gate has a curved water supporting face made of steel. The curved
water face which is in the shape of sector of a circle is properly braced by steel
frame work which is pivoted on horizontal shafts called trunnions or pins.
• The pins are anchored in the downstream portion of the spillway piers. The
gates thus can rotate about the fixed horizontal axis. The hoisting cables are
attached to the gate and lead to winches on the hoisting platform. The winches
are usually motor driven.
• The gates can be lifted with smaller lifting forces for all heads. Due to this,
small radial gates may even be hand operated whereas the vertical lift gates
may require power mechanism.
5. Drum Gates
• Drum gates are useful for longer spans of the order of 40 m or so and medium
heights say 10 m or so.
• The drum gates consists of a segment of a cylinder which may be raised above
the spillway crest or may be lowered into the recess made into the top of the
spillway.
• The drum gate is completely enclosed and is hinged at the upstream end. The
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 buoyant forces due to head of water pressure underneath the drum, aid in it’s
lifting. When the drum is lowered, it fits into the recess in such a way that the
surface becomes coincident with the shape of the crest
6. Flap Gates
This type of gate is leaf hinged at bearings along it’s lower edge. The leaf may be flat
or curved to give better discharge characteristics when rotated to it’s open position.
This type of gate can be built to great lengths and is suited for passing floating
materials and for close regulations.

Fig: Flashboards Fig: Stoplogs

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Fig: Drum gates

Fig: Flap gate

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Effect of Tailwater on Hydraulic Jump and Types of Energy

Dissipators
(Note: for exam Purpose, a, b and c are enough)

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Different Hydromechanical and Electromechanical Equipment in thepowerhouse
Different hydromechanical and electromechanicalequipment in the powerhouse are
1. Gates
2. Valves
3. Turbines
4. Pumps
5. Generator
6. Governer
7. Transformer

Turbines:
Turbine is the hydro mechanical equipment which converts the kinetic and pressure energy (water energy) of
water into the mechanical energy of shaft.

The common types of turbines used are

a. Francis Turbine
b. Pelton Turbine
c. Propeller turbines and Kaplan turbines
d. Deriaz turbines
e. Turgo impulse wheel
Classification of Turbines:
1. According to the type of energy head possessed by the waterat the inlet:
a. Impulse Turbine:
In impulse turbine, the water entering the turbine possesses the kinetic energy only and the water leaving the
turbine has same pressure energy at which it entered the turbine but the water leaving turbine has less kinetic
energy than water entering the turbine. The energy is obtained mainly due to decrease in kinetic energy of the
water. Water enters the turbine at atmospheric pressure and water leaves the turbine at atmospheric pressure.
b. Reaction Turbine:
 Water entering the turbine has both kinetic energy as well as the pressure energy. The energy obtained is due to
change of kinetic energy as well as pressure energy of water. The flow of water through such types of turbines is
pressure flow.
Difference Between Reaction Turbines and Impulse Turbines
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

Water entering the turbine has kinetic energy only Water leaving the turbines has kinetic energy and
pressure energy.

Water enters the turbine at atmospheric pressureand Water enters the turbine at high pressure and leaves
leaves the turbine at atmospheric pressure. the turbine at negative pressure.

Blades are in action only when they are in front of the All blades are in action all the time.
nozzle.

The turbine should be installed above the tailrace. The turbine can be installed above or below the
tailrace.

Repair and maintenance is easy. Repair and maintenance is difficult.

Suitable for high head and low discharge Suitable for medium to low head and high discharge

Low specific speed High specific speed

2. According to the direction of flow through the runner :

The direction of flow through the runner is compare with the direction
of the shaft of the turbine.
a. Tangential flow turbine: The direction of flow through the runner is tangential with respect to the direction
of the shaft. e. g; pelton turbines
b. Radial flow Turbines: The direction of flow through the runner is
 radial with respect to the direction of the shaft.
c. Axial Flow Turbines: The direction of flow through the runner isaxial with respect to the direction of
the shaft. e. g; Kaplan Turbines.
d. Mixed Flow Turbines: The water enters radially with respect to the
shaft and leaves axially. e. g; Francis Turbine.
3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine:
a. High Head Turbine: Head >350 m (Pelton Turbine)
b. Medium Head Turbines: Head = 60 m to 350m (Francis Turbine)
c. Low Head Turbines: Head < 60 m (Kaplan Turbines, propeller turbines)

4. According to Specific Speed of the Turbine:

a. Low Specific Speed Turbine: Pelton turbine
b. Medium Specific Speed Turbine: Francis Turbine
c. High Specific Speed Turbine: Kaplan, propeller turbine
Different Turbine Speeds and Related Terms
1. Specific Speed:
Specific speed is defined as the runner speed such that if the runner of the turbine rotates at this speed, the turbine will
produce power equal to 1 hp.
𝑃1/2
Mathematically, Ns = N* , where,
𝐻 5/4

Ns = Specific Speed
N = Runner speed
P = power in hp
H = Net Head
2. According to Specific Speed of the Turbine:
a. Low Specific Speed Turbine: Pelton turbine
b. Medium Specific Speed Turbine: Francis Turbine
c. High Specific Speed Turbine: Kaplan, propeller turbine
Different Turbine Speeds and Related Terms
1. Specific Speed:
Specific speed is defined as the runner speed such that if the runner ofthe turbine rotates at this speed, the turbine
will produce power equalto 1 hp.
𝑃1/2
Mathematically, Ns = N*
𝐻 5/4

Ns = Specific speed
N = Runner speed
P = power in hp
H = Net Head
Emperical formula for Specific Speed of Some Turbines
2400
Ns = for Francis Turbine
√𝐻
1030
Ns = for fixed blade propeller turbine
𝐻 1/4
1475
Ns = for adjustable blade propeller turbine (Kaplan Turbine)
𝐻 1/3
260√𝑛
Ns = for single jet pelton turbine (Ns = √𝑛 * specific speed of single jet)
𝐷/𝑑
Range of Specific Speed for Different Turbines
Specific Speed Type of Turbine
Less than 30 Single jet pelton
30-50 Multi jet pelton turbine
50-260 Francis Turbine
260-860 Kaplan Turbine

2. Runner Speed: The speed of the runner of the turbine is called the runner sped. It is expressed in
number of revolutions per minute, RPM.
3. Synchronous Speed: The speed of the turbine is called synchronous speed if it is equal to the generator
speed.
Nsynch = 120f/Np , where, Nsynch = synchronous speed,
f = frequency = 50 Hz for Nepal, Np = number of poles
Note that the number of poles can never be odd.
4. Runway Speed:
If the external load on the turbine suddenly drops to zero and the governing mechanism fails at the same
time, the turbine will tend to race upto the maximum possible speed known as runway speed. This limiting
speed under no load conditions with maximum flow rate must consider for the safe design of the various
rotating components of the turbo-generator unit.
5. Speed Factor:
The speed factor, ϕ is defined as the ratio of peripheral speed, u of the bucket or vanes at the nominal
diameter, D to the theoretical velocity of water under effective head, H acting on the turbine
𝑢
Φ= ,
√2𝑔𝐻
𝜋𝐷𝑁
Also, u =
60

Pelton Turbine:
It is the tangential flow impulse turbine which is suitable for high head and low discharge. It consists of a
number of buckets around a circular disc. The water strikes the buckets and the runner converts kinetic
energy of water into themechanical energy. The main parts of the pelton turbine are:
1. Nozzle
2. Runner
3. Casing
4. Braking Jet

1. Nozzle:
The nozzle directs the flow into the buckets. It controls the quantity of water to the turbines with the help of
 spear valve. The spear is a conical needle operated with hand or automatically. The maximum number of
nozzles in a turbines isupto six.
2. Runner with Buckets:
The runner consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed.
The bucketsconsist of two hemispherical cups. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical halves by means
of splitter. The bucket is made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel.
3. Casing: The casing prevents the splashing of water and discharges water to the tailrace. The
casing in the turbine has no hydraulic function. The jet of water impact to the buckets under atmospheric
pressure so there is atmospheric pressure inside the casing.
4. Breaking Jet: A small jet o water directed on the back of vanesto stop the runner after the spare
valve being closed.
Design Steps of Pelton Turbine:
1. The jet velocity V = Cv * √2𝑔ℎ , where,
Cv = coefficient of velocity = 0.96 to 0.99 (0.98 generally), h = net head
2. If there are n number of jets, then if d be the jet diameter,
Q = n * V *П/4*d2 , where Q = design discharge
3. The tangential velocity of the wheel, u = Ф*√2𝑔ℎ ,
where, Ф = speed factor
Ф = 0.43 to 0.48 (generally 0.46 is adopted).
𝐷
4. The mean diameter of the runner is calculated by using the jet ratio. Jet ratio = ,
𝑑
Where, D =diameter of the runner, d = diameter of jet, jet ratio = 10 to 15 (generally 12 is adopted).
5. The runner speed can be calculated by,
П∗𝐷∗𝑁
u= , where, u = tangential speed of the runner, N = runner speed.
60
Calculate the number of poles from the equation,
N = 120f/Np, if Np is not an even number, then round Np to nearest even number. Again calculate the N using
revised Np .
6. Calculate the number of buckets by, Nb = 15 +D/(2d).
7. Calculate the specific speed by
 𝑃1/2
Ns = N* 5/4,
𝐻
Ns = Specific Speed
N = Runner speed (Note that N should be the revised N).
P = power in hp
H = Net Head
8. Working Proportion
Axial width of bucket, B = 3d to 4d
Radial length, L = 2d to 3d
Depth, T = 0.8d to 1.2d
b. Francis Turbine:
A francis turbine is mixed flow reaction turbine. It is suitable for medium to high discharge and medium to high
head. The water enters the spiral casing from penstock where it enters the runner radially through the guide vanes
and after running through the runner, water moves to tailrace via the draft tube. It is the mostly used turbine. The
components of the francis turbine are:
1. Casing
2. Guide mechanism
3. Runner
4. Draft tube
1. Spiral Casing: The spiral casing conveys water from the penstock to turbine. The spiral casing is decreasing
in diameter. Water leaves the spiral casing via the stay vanes.
2. Guide Mechanism: The guide vanes guide the water from spiral casing to the runner.
3. Runner: The runner consists of a number of curved vanes. Water enters radially to the runner and
leaves axially. The drafttube is connected at the outlet of runner.
4. Draft Tube: The draft tube is a conduit of increasing diameter which conveys water from outlet of the
runner to the tailrace. The pressure at the outlet of the runner is negative. The draft tube helps to recover the
rejected kinetic energy at the outlet of runner to useful pressure energy.
Design of Francis Turbine
1. Assume the trial specific speed
 2400
Ns = , where H = net head
√𝐻

2. Calculate the runner speed from the equation

𝑃1/2
Ns = N* , where,
𝐻 5/4

Ns = Specific Speed
N = Runner speed
P = power in hp
H = Net Head, Note: revise the runner sped and specific speed so that the runner speed is synchronous.
3. The tangential speed is calculated by:
u = Ф*√2𝑔ℎ , where, Ф = 0.0197 Ns 2/3 + 0.0275, where Ns = specific speed.
Note that Ф ranges from 0.6 to 0.9.
The discharge through the turbine,
Q = π * Binlet * Dinlet * Vinlet = π * Boutlet * Doutlet * Voutlet
Since, Vinlet = Voutlet , Binlet * Dinlet = Boutlet * Doutlet
𝐵𝑖 𝐵𝑖
And = constant. The ratio depends on the speed ratio Ф, which is given in many books.
𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑖

3. Calculate the outlet diameter of the runner by:

П∗𝐷∗𝑁
u= , where, D = diameter of runner.
60

3. Calculate the outlet diameter of the runner by:

П∗𝐷∗𝑁
u= , where, D = diameter of runner.
60
4. Calculate the setting height of the runner with respect to the tailrace.
 H = Ha – Hv – ϭ * H, where
𝑁𝑠 2
Ϭ = Thomas cavitation number = 0.625*( ), where, Ns = specific peed
444

Ha = atmospheric pressure head

Hv = Vapour pressure head
𝑁𝑃1/2
Note that Ns should be calculated by taking power in hp in Ns = , i. e; same as calculated in previous
𝐻 5/4

steps.

Propeller and Kaplan Turbines

Kaplan and propeller turbines are the axial flow reaction turbines. They are suitable for high discharge and low
head.
Propeller: The vanes (runner blades) are fixed to the hub andthey are not adjustable.
Kaplan Turbine: The vanes of the bulb are adjustable. Due tothe facility of movable blades, the turbine can have
good efficiency from 50 % under load to 50 % over load.
Component Parts:
a. Scroll Casing
b. Guide Vane Mechanism
c. Runner of the turbine
d. Draft tube
1. Scroll Casing: Scroll casing or spiral casing is provided to feedwater to the turbine runner via stay vanes and
guide vanes. The cross sectional area of the spiral casing goes on reducingas the discharge is drawn from the stay
vanes.
2. Guide Vane Mechanism: The guide vanes control the flow towards the runner and control the optimum
angle of attack for maximum efficiency. If the discharge requirement for the runner is high, the guide vane
opening is more as well.
3. Runner of the Turbine: The runner of the turbine consists of the runner blades arranged around the hub or
boss. The blades of propeller turbine are non-adjustable (fixed) and Kaplan turbine are adjustable.
4. Draft Tube: Draft tube is a closed conduit of gradually increasing size that discharges the water from outlet
of the runner to the tailrace. Draft tube shall be specially designed toavoid and resist cavitation.
Design Steps of Kaplan Turbine:
1. The specific speed is given by
1030
Ns = for fixed blade propeller turbine
𝐻 1/4
1475
Ns = for adjustable blade propeller turbine (Kaplan Turbine)
𝐻 1/3

2. The relation of specific seed and the runner speed is

𝑁𝑃1/2
Ns =
𝐻 5/4

N = runner speed in RPM

P = power in hp
H = net head in m
From this formula, we can get N
Note that, this N should be synchronous and Ns should be revised accordingly.
3. The speed ratio can be calculated from,
ϕ = 0.0242*Ns 2/3 for propeller and ϕ = 0.0252*Ns 2/3 for Kaplan
Note that the Ns should be revised one.
4. The peripheral velocities are given by
𝜋𝐷0 𝑁
u=
60
Where, D0 = outer diameter of the runner
5. The flow velocity through the runner is given by
𝑉𝑓
Flow ratio, Cm = ,
√2𝑔𝐻
 Vf = flow velocity through the runner
Cm = flow ratio
6. The discharge through the turbine is calculate by
𝜋
Q = *Vf *(𝐷02 − 𝐷𝑏2 )
4
D0 = outer diameter of the runner
Db = diameter of hub or boss
7. Setting of Turbine
Setting height with respect to the tailrace
Hs = Ha – Hv – σc *H
Where, Ha = atmospheric pressure head
Hv = vapour pressure head
H = net head
σc = Thomas cavitation number
1 𝑁𝑠 3
For propeller, σc = 0.28 + *()
7.5 444
1 𝑁
For Kaplan, σc = 1.1*[0.28 + *( 𝑠 )3 ]
7.5 444
𝑁𝑃1/2
Note that Ns should be calculated by taking power in hp in Ns = .
𝐻 5/4
Draft Tube:
Draft tube is a closed conduit of gradually increasing area whichdischarges water from outlet of the runner to the
tailrace. The draft tube increases net head on the turbine.
The draft tube in addition to passage of discharge serves followingpurposes.
a. The draft tube permits negative head to be established at outletof runner and thereby increases net head on the
turbine. The turbine may be placed above the tailrace without any loss of head and hence the turbine may be
inspected properly.
b. The turbine helps to recover velocity head of water at theoutlet of runner in the form of pressure
energy.
Types of draft tube
a. Conical Draft Tube
b. Simple elbow tube
c. Moody spreading tube
d. Elbow draft tube with circular inlet and rectangular outlet
Draft Tube Theory and Setting f Draft Tube
Consider a conical draft tube as shown in figure.
Point 1 is the start of draft tube or outlet or runner and
point 2 is the outlet ot the draft tube
Let Hs = setting height = vertical height of the
draft tube above the tailrace
Applying Bernouli’s equation at 1 and 2,
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hf ……………..1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Where, Z1 = Hs +y
P2 = Pa +γy
hf = head loss between sections 1 and 2
Substituting these values,
equation 1) becomes
𝑃 𝑉12 Pa +γy 𝑉22
Hs +y+ 1 + =0+ + + hf
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
 𝑃1 Pa 𝑉22 𝑉12
Or, = - Hs + + hf -
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃1 Pa 𝑉12 𝑉22
Or = - Hs- ( - -hf )………………………..2)
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
Equation 2) shows that the pressure at the outlet of runner or inlet of draft tube is negative (i. e; less than atmospheric).
So, there is a possibility that cavitation effect will be observed at inlet of draft tube if the pressure is much below.
𝑃𝑎 𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑉22
Also, Hs = - -( - -hf )………………………..3)
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔
Equation 3) can be used to calculate the setting height of the reaction turbine with respect to the tailrace
Efficiency of draft tube,
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
ꬼd =
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑉12 𝑉22
Actual conversion of kinetic head to pressure head = - - hf
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉12
Kinetic head at inlet of the draft tube =
2𝑔
𝑉2 𝑉2
1 - 2 - hf
2𝑔 2𝑔
Hence, ꬼd = 𝑉21
2𝑔
Also, the equations 2) and 3) can be extended to
𝑃1 Pa 𝑉12
= - Hs- ꬼd * ………………………..4)
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝑎 𝑃1 𝑉12
Hs = - - ꬼd * ………………………..5)
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃1 𝑃𝑎
If, = H1 and = Ha
𝛾 𝛾
The value of H1 shall be slightly more than vapour pressure, otherwise water will evaporate at the outlet of the runner.
So, H1= Hv + K’*H
Where K’*H represents the pressure in addition to the vapour pressure head.
𝑉12
Also, = Cv *H (Because, V1 = Cv √2𝑔𝐻 )
2𝑔
Therefore, equation 5) becomes
 Hs = Ha - Hv - K’*H ꬼd - Cv2 *H ………………………..5)
Or, Hs = Ha - Hv – (K’* ꬼd + Cv2)
Or, Hs = Ha - Hv – σc H, where, (K’* ꬼd + Cv2) = σc is called Thomas Cavitation number.
The values of Thomas cavitation numbers for different turbines can be estimated from following formula.
𝑁
For francis turbine, = 0.625*( 𝑠 )2, For propeller,
444
1 𝑁
σc = 0.28 + *( 𝑠 )3
7.5 444
1 𝑁𝑠 3
For Kaplan, σc = 1.1*[0.28 + *( ) ]
7.5 444
𝑁𝑃1/2
Note that Ns should be calculated by taking power in hp in Ns = , same as it is calculated in previous steps
𝐻 5/4

Performance Characteristics of Turbines

• The turbines are designed for condition-specific head, discharge, efficiency and power but the conditions
during operation of the plants and they have to operate during in different conditions than designed specific
conditions. For the design of turbines it is essential to have the turbine with performance characteristics in
different conditions. The result of their behavior is plotted in the graph different condition are called
characteristic curve. The turbine characteristics curves include the performance of the turbine over full
range of turbine running conditions.
• For example, a turbine is designed for a rated head of 500m, rated discharge of 10 m3/sec and specific speed
of 35 RPM. The turbine has 90 % efficiency under the rated conditions. The proposed project is a reservoir
type project. It is well known that with the drawdown, the reservoir level and net head on the turbine is
dropped. The efficiency of the turbine will be less at other operating conditions than the specified.
• Simillarly, in the RoR projects, the head may be less fluctuating but the discharge shows huge variation. In
the discharge less than rated discharge, the turbine has less efficiency than the rated efficiency.
• To achieve maximum power and energy generation from the project, it is absolutely essential to know the
behavior of the turbine under different operation condition. The characteristic curves are provided by the
manufacturer. The power plant may be operated to generate maximum power and energy after throught
review of the turbine characteristics
Characterstic Curves
Selection of Turbines:
Selection of Turbine
depends upon various
parameters. The given
diagram shows the
ranges of head and
discharge within
which the given
turbines can be used.
There are other
parameters besides
these that affect the
selection of turbine.
The turbine type selection depends upon various parameters
1. Head:
a. Very high head (>350 m): Pelton
b. High Head (150-350 m): Both francis and pelton
c. Medium head (60-150 m) : Francis turbine
d. Low head (below 60 m): both Kaplan and francis turbines can be used.
2. Specific Speed
Higher specific speed occurs if the head is low. Hence for higher specific speeds, we prefer Kaplan turbines. For
lower specific speeds, we preferpelton turbines.
3. Rotational speed:
High speed: Kaplan turbine Medium Speed: Francis turbineLow Speed: Pelton turbine
4. Discharge: Discharge in the stream limits the number of units to be installed. More the discharge, more the
number of units (turbines). Forhigher discharge per unit, following sequence is followed.
High: Kaplan Medium: FrancisLow: Pelton
5. Quality of water:
If the sediment concentration is more, the pelton turbine is preferred tofrancis.
6. Multiple use of the Turbine:
In pumped storage projects, the turbine also acts as a pump in the pumping mode. So, only francis turbine will be
suitable.
7. Discharge variation:
The Pelton turbine has better efficiency at part load as compared to thefrancs turbine. Hence, pelton turbine is
preferred for more variation in discharge.
Need and Working Principle of Governors:
Governor:
Governor is the equipment which keeps the speed of the turbine constant especially when the load on the
generator is increased or decreased. It also controls the amount of water inflow to the turbines.

When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the turbine increases. Then the governor maintains the
constant speed of the turbine. Similarly, when the load on the generator increases, the speed of the turbine
decreases. Gain, the governor maintains the speed.

In case of the Pelton turbine, the governor increases or decreases the outlet area of the nozzle by moving the spare
valve. But in case of Francis turbine, thegovernor changes the opening of the wicket gate.
Governing of the Pelton Wheel:
• The governing of Pelton wheel is elaborated in the following diagram. When the load on the generator
decreases, the speed of the turbine shaft increases. This causes the fly balls and the sleeve to rise up. The
piston rod of the control valves V1 and V2 moves down and the valve V2 opens. The oil from the oil
supply chamber moves in the cylinder and pushes the face A of the piston of relay cylinder. This moves
the spear valve inwards and causes the flow area to decrease and hence decreases the flow in the turbine.
• When the load on the generator increases, the speed of the turbine shaft decreases. This causes the fly balls
and the sleeve to move down. The piston rod of the control valves V1 and V2 rises up and the valve V1
opens. The oil from the oil supply chamber moves in the cylinder and pushes the face B of the piston of
relay cylinder. This moves the spear valve outwards and causes the flow area to increase and hence
increases the flow in the turbine.
Fig: Governing mechanism of Pelton wheel
Governing of pelton
wheel continued…………
Also, the cam connected
with the spear valve
increases forward which
causes the fulcrum go
upward and brings the
sleeve and piston of the
oil supply cylinder in
original position.
Governing of the Francis
Turbine:
Governor changes the
opening of the wicket
gates in case of the francis
turbines. The working
mechanism of the
governor is same a in case
of the pelton turbine. The
following figure explains
the mechanism of the
francis turbine governor.
POWER HOUSE
The structural complex where all the equipment for generating electricity are suitably
arranged is a powerhouse. Two basic requirements of powerhouse are functional
efficiency and aestheticbeauty. Depending upon the location, the powerhouse
a) Surface powerhouse
b) Underground powerhouse
a. Surface powerhouse
A powerhouse Structure, which is constructed over the ground surface is called surface
powerhouse. A surface powerhouse is provided where sufficient space is available for
power house construction. However, good foundation should be available for
construction of surface powerhouse. If good rock is not available, special foundation
treatment such as pile foundation, mat foundation etc. is required.
b. Underground powerhouse
Under special circumstances such as when gorge or valley is narrow providing not
enough space for powerhouse, underground powerhouse are advantageous. The
underground powerhouse is adopted in following conditions.
1. If there is physical surface hazards like rock slides, snow avalanches etc. are
frequent at the powerhouse location.
2. Flexibility in layout of powerhouse is achieved in underground powerhouse.
3. The water conveyance length and penstock length can be shortened by providing
the underground powerhouse.
4. Bends, anchor blocks, support piers etc can be avoided by providing underground
powerhouse.
5. If good quality rock is available, the underground powerhouse shall be more
feasible than the surface powerhouse option.
6. In some places where there is cost of land is too expensive at the powerhouse area,
underground powerhouse shall be more feasible option.
Powerhouse Structures
The vertical section of powerhouse structure is divided into different parts based on axis
of turbine. For horizontal axis (shaft) turbines, two floors are provided called sub
structure and superstructure. In this arrangement, the turbine and generator are placed at
the same floor.
For vertical axis (shaft) turbines, three floors are provided called sub structure,
intermediate structure and super structure. In this arrangement, generator floor is above
the turbine floor.
The brief description of the three floors is shown below.
• Sub structure
The sub structure of the power house is that part of the structure which is situated below
the turbine level. This portion is located below the ground level and it includes draft
tube, tail water channel. In case of Pelton turbine, the other natural drainage pipes of
waste water from the powerhouse, drainage galleries and grout galleries needed from
structural consideration are provided in this floor. The sub structure transmits the load
of the structure above it to the foundation strata and is usually a massive construction
which may have also a basement floor accommodated in it.

• Intermediate Structure
This floor is also called turbine floor. The turbine and it's shaft lie at this floor. The
spiral casing, turbine inlet valve also lie in this floor. The governor servo motor, spiral
casing is also provided in this floor. The intermediate structure extends from the top of
the draft tube to thetop of the generator foundation.
• Super Structure
The super structure of the power house is the portion extending from the generator floor,
called the main floor, up to the roof top. It consists of the generators and governors,
control room, the exciters and the auxiliary equipment needed for ventilation and
cooling. The super structure consists of walls and roof with a main travelling gantry
crane at the roof level. The super structure also consists of one wing having the offices
and stores.
Powerhouse dimensioning
Three essential constituents (bay) of superstructure of powerhouseare
(a) Machine hall or the unit bay
(b) Erection or the loading bay
(C) Control bay

(a) Machine hall

Length:
Length of machine hall depends upon the number of units, the distance between the
units, sizes of machines, and clearance. The minimum clearance of about 2 to 3m is
provided between the units. So the center to center distance between the unit is taken as
(5D+2.5) m. For higher specific speed, this distance can be reduced upto (4D+2.5) m.
Here D is the outlet diameter of runner. The total length of machine hall = number of
units×(5D+2.5).
Width:
width of the machine hall is also determined by the size and clearance space from the
walls needed as gangway. Since gangway requirements are of the order of 2.5m, as a
first approximation, the width of the machine hall can be presumed to be (5D+2.5) m.
Height: The height of the machine hall is fixed up by head room requirement
(clearance) for crane operation. In general 2 to 2.5m head requirement is for crane
operation. The height = Height of tallest vertical unit + 2.5 m.
Loading bay:
Loading bay, also known as erection or service bay, is a space where the heavy vehicles
can be loaded and unloaded, the dismantled parts of the machines can be placed and
where small assembling of the equipment can be done. The loading bay should be of
sufficient to receive the large parts like the rotor and runner. The loading bay floor will
be having a width at least equal to the center distance between the machines.
Control bay:
Control bay is the main room and control other equipment like runner, gates valves,
generator etc. it may be adjacent to the unit bay i.e. machine halls as it sends instructions
to the operation bayfrom where the operation control is achieved.