THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

NUCLEAR REACTION PERIODIC TABLE

• NUCLEUS
⁃ found at the center of the atom
⁃ core of the atom
⁃ 99% of the atom’s mass is located here
⁃ size is till 100,000 times smaller than the
size of the atom
⁃ main subatomic are found here
• PROTON
⁃ positively charge
⁃ was discovered by Ernest Rutherford
⁃ all identical
• NEUTRON
⁃ was discovered through the bombardment
of a thin sheet of beryllium with alpha
particles
⁃ was discovered by James Chadwick in
1932
⁃ electrically neutral
⁃ slightly more massive than a proton
• ELECTRON
⁃ negatively charged particles
⁃ exact location of electrons cannot be
known
⁃ like to be found in the space outside the
nucleus where it is full of fuzzy blurry cloud
⁃ the location in the clod depends on the
energy it possesses
• HENRY MOSELY
- young english physicist
- discovered a correlation between
what he called atomic number and
the frequency of x-rays generated by
bombarding the elements with high
energy electrons
- noticed that the frequency of emitted
X-ray increases with increasing
atomic mass
- arranging elements according to
atomic number made sense out of
the earlier discrepancies
- concluded that the atomic number is
equal to number of protons in the
nucleus and the number of electrons
in atom
- the atomic mass is equal to the total
of protons and neutrons
• ISOTOPE
- atoms of the same element are not
all identical because most elements
have two or more isotopes
- are atoms with the same atomic
number but different mass number
(this is die to their different number
of neutrons)
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
1. PROTIUM
⁃ the most abundant
⁃ one proton, no neutron

2. DEUTERIUM
⁃ one proton, one neutron

3. TRITIUM
⁃ one proton, two neutron

KIMBERLY MEDRANO
 • BOND POLARITY
• ELECTRONEGATIVITY
⁃ ability of an atom in a molecule to attract
shared electrons
⁃ a property of an element that we must
consider in determining the polarity of a
compound
⁃ ability of atom to draw shared electrons
towards itself
⁃ has important role in formation of
molecules
POLARITY
⁃ ability of atom to attract electrons

• GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES
⁃ very important in understanding the
physical and chemical behavior of
substances
⁃ one of the most important effects of
molecular geometry is molecules polarity

• MOLECULAR POLARITY TYPES OF BONDS ACCORDING

⁃ influences physical, chemical, and TO ITS POLARITY
biological properties of substances
1. PURE COVALENT BOND
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
- neutral atoms share electrons
The two types of bonding are at the two
equally between them
extremes of the bonding spectrum. There
- 0.5 or lower (non polar)
are other bonds lying between two
extremes. They are called polar or polar
2. POLAR COVALENT
covalent bonds.
- partially charged atoms are held
together by unequally shared
1. IONIC BONDS
electrons
⁃ occur between a metal and nonmetal
- 0.6 to 2.0 (polar)

2. COVALENT BONDS
3. IONIC BOND
⁃ occur between nonmetals
- oppositely ions are held together by
electrostatic attraction
- 2.1 and higher

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 4. TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY - five atoms
- no lone pairs of electrons around the
● MOLECULAR GEOMETRY central atom
- Describes its shape and structure,
which is determined by the 5. OCTAHEDRAL
arrangement of its atoms and the - six atoms
bonds between then - no lone pairs of electrons around the
- Understanding this is essential in central atom
predicting chemical properties and
reactions 6. BENT
- three atoms
● LEWIS STRUCTURES - one or two lone pairs
- Uses dots and lines to
represent electrons and bonds 7. T-SHAPED
between atoms - four atoms
- Two lone pairs
● VSEPR THEORY
- stands VALENCE SHELL 8. SQUARE PYRAMIDAL
ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION - five atoms
THEORY - one lone pair
- predicts the arrangement of electron
pairs around the central atoms 9. SQUARE PLANAR
- four atoms
- two lone pairs
TYPES OF MOLECULAR THEORY
FACTORS AFFECTING
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
There are several types of molecular
geometry that can be predicted using 1. NUMBER OF BONDING AND
VSEPR theory. NONBONDING ELECTRON
PAIRS
1. LINEAR - determines the electron pairs
- two atoms repulsion and the shape of the
- no lone pairs of electrons around the molecule
central atom 2. HYBRIDIZATION
2. TRIGONAL PLANAR - refers to mixing of atomic orbitals to
- three atoms form new hybrid orbitals that can
- no lone pairs of electrons around the accommodate bonding electrons
central atom 3. ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND
3. TETRAHEDRAL POLARITY
- four atoms - affect the distribution of
- no lone pairs of electrons around the electrons in a molecule
central atom

KIMBERLY MEDRANO
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
● LONDON DISPERSION
FORCES
● INTERMOLECULAR FORCES - also knowns as van der Waals forces
- are the attractive or repulsive forces - occur between nonpolar molecules
that occur between molecules due to temporary fluctuations in
- play a crucial role in determining the electron density
physical and chemical properties of - Weakest
substances - can still have a significant impact on
- understanding this is essential in the [physical properties of
many fields, including chemistry, substances
physics, biology, and material
science
● The nature of intermolecular
forces can also affect the
THREE MAIN TYPES OF
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES solubility of substances and
their ability to dissolve in
different solvents.
● DIPOLE-DIPOLE
● The size and shape of
INTERACTION
molecules can also affect the
- occur between polar molecules
strength of intermolecular
- involve the attraction between
forces and their impact on
positive and negative ends of
physical properties.
molecules
- are relatively strong intermolecular
forces
- the strength of this depends on the
polarity of the molecules and the
distance between them
- Can affect melting and boiling
points, viscosity, and other physical
properties of substances

● HYDROGEN BONDING
- occurs when a hydrogen atom
bonded to an electronegative atom
(oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) is
attracted to another
electronegativity atom in a nearby
molecule
- relatively strong
- has a significant impact on the
physical properties of substances
such as boiling points and solubility

KIMBERLY MEDRANO