Physics Definitions and Formulae

COMMONLY TESTED STUFF:
Coherence Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference
between them.
Coherent Sources Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference
between them, and the waves are of the same frequency.
Faraday’s Law The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linkage or the rate of cutting of
magnetic flux.
𝑑φ
𝐸∝ 𝑑𝑡
Simple Harmonic Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion in which the

Motion acceleration of the body:
- Is directly proportional to the displacement from its
equilibrium point, and
- Is always in the opposite direction to the displacement.
2
𝑎 =− ω 𝑥
First Law of The increase in the internal energy of a system is the sum of the
Thermodynamics heat supplied to the system and the work done on the system.
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
Principle of The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves
Superposition of the same kind overlap, the resultant displacement at any point
at any instant is given by the vector sum of the individual
displacements that each individual wave would cause at that point
at that instant.
Photon A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Its energy is

given by:
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓
Content compiled and edited by u/grillbz and friends from HCI. List of commonly tested terms compiled by
Ms Leo-Chua Hui Li, Teri. Hwa Chong Institution 2020-2021
Spontaneous
(process/decay)
Random
(process/decay)
(Two) Conditions for Translational: The net external force acting on a body is zero
Equilibrium Σ𝐹 = 0
𝑒𝑥𝑡
Rotational: The net moment on the body about any point is zero
Στ 𝑒𝑥𝑡
= 0
Root-mean-square The root-mean-square value of an alternating current is that

values (AC) equivalent direct constant current that will dissipate the same
average power in a given resistive load.
Gravitational Field The gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a mass, in

which any other mass experiences a force of attraction.
Gravitational field strength g (at any point in a gravitational field) is
the gravitational force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed
at that point.
Significance of Indicates the direction of the force/field.

(usually negative) sign
Magnetic Flux Density The magnetic flux density, B, is the force per unit length per unit
current acting on a straight current-carrying conductor placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field.
MEASUREMENTS
The 7 Base Quantities Mass (kg), Length (m), Time (s), Electric current (A),
Thermodynamic temperature (K), Amount of substance (mol),
Luminous intensity (cd)
Prefixes Prefix Order of Magnitude

Tera 12
Giga 9
Mega 6
Kilo 3
- 0
Deci -1
Centi -2
Milli -3
Micro -6
Nano -9
Pico -12
Fractional Uncertainty Ratio of actual uncertainty to measured value

∆𝑥
𝑥
Percentage Uncertainty Fractional uncertainty x100%

∆𝑥
𝑥
× 100%
Rules for s.f. and d.p. - Express uncertainties to 1sf

- Express quantity to same dp as uncertainty
Addition/Subtraction For both addition and subtraction, add the uncertainties
Multiplication/Division For both multiplication and division, add the fractional uncertainties
Scaling If 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑎, then ∆𝑟 = 𝑘(∆𝑎)
Powers 𝑛 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑎
If 𝑠 = 𝑎 , then
𝑠
= |𝑛| 𝑎
Actual Uncertainty 1
∆𝑍 = 2
(𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥
−𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛
)
Precision A measure of how well a result can be determined (without

reference to a theoretical or true value). The degree of consistency
and agreement among independent measurements of the same
quantity.
Accuracy The closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true

or accepted value.
Systematic vs Random Random errors are deviations of the measured value from the
Error mean value, with varying signs and magnitudes.
Systematic errors are deviations of the mean value from the true
value, with same sign and similar magnitude.
Random error can be reduced by taking average of repeated

readings, but not eliminated. Systematic error cannot be reduced
by taking average of repeated readings, but can be eliminated via
good experimental techniques.
Random error affects precision but not accuracy.

Systematic error affects accuracy but not precision.
Scalar vs Vector Scalar has magnitude but no direction.

Vector has magnitude and direction.
Resolving Vectors
KINEMATICS
Distance Distance is the total length travelled by a moving object irrespective of
the direction of motion.
Displacement Displacement of an object from a reference point O is the linear

distance and the direction of the object from O. The linear distance
refers to the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an
object moved from one place to another.
Speed The rate of change of distance travelled by an object with respect to

time.
∆𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, < 𝑣 >= ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
Velocity The rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
∆𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, < 𝑣 >= ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
Acceleration The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
∆𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, < 𝑎 >= ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
Graphs Instantaneous velocity is the gradient of the tangent to a point on an

s-t graph.
Average velocity is the gradient of the straight line connecting two
points corresponding to a given time interval on an s-t graph.
Instantaneous acceleration is the gradient of the tangent to a point on

a v-t graph.
Average acceleration is the gradient of the straight line connecting two
points corresponding to a given time interval on an s-t graph.
Area under v-t graph gives change in displacement.
Kinematic 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Equations 2 2
𝑣 =𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡
Viscous Drag No turbulent flow: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑣

𝐷
Force 2
Turbulent flow: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑣
𝐷
DYNAMICS
Centre of Gravity The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of
the object appears to act.
Centre of Mass The centre of mass of an object is the point at which the mass of the
object appears to be.
Friction The force that resists relative motion between two sliding surfaces, or
the tendency for relative motion between two stationary surfaces.
Newton’s First Law of A body stays at rest or continues to move with a constant speed in a
Motion straight line unless acted upon by a net external force.
Linear Momentum The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its
velocity.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
−1
SI unit: 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠
Newton’s Second Law The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly
of Motion proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is in the
direction of the resultant force.
𝑑𝑝
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡
=𝑘 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑝 𝑚∆𝑣
<𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡
>= ∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡
Impulse The impulse of a force is the product of the average force and the
time interval over which it is applied.
𝐽 =< 𝐹 > ∆𝑡
SI unit: 𝑁 𝑠
The area under the force-time graph
Impulse-Momentum The change in momentum of a particle during a time interval

Theorem equals the impulse of the net force that acts on the particle during
that interval.
Newton’s Third Law of If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert an equal
Motion and opposite force on body A.
Principle of The total linear momentum of a system remains unchanged if no

Conservation of net external force acts on the system.
Linear Momentum
Σ𝑚 𝑛
𝑢 𝑛
= Σ𝑚 𝑣
𝑛 𝑛
𝑚 𝐴
𝑢 𝐴
+ 𝑚 𝐵
𝑢 𝐵
= 𝑚 𝐴
𝑣 𝐴
+𝑚 𝑣
𝐵 𝐵
Head-on collision A head-on collision is one in which the directions of motion before
and after the collision are along the same line of motion.
Elastic collision 100% of kinetic energy is conserved
Inelastic collision Some or all of the kinetic energy is converted into other forms of
energy.
Perfectly inelastic A collision where the two objects coalesce and move with common
collision velocity after the collision. This represents the maximum possible
loss of kinetic energy without violating the principle of conservation
of energy.
Statement of Relative For elastic collisions, the relative speed of approach is equal to the
Speed of relative speed of separation.
Approach/Separation 𝑢 − 𝑢 = 𝑣 −𝑣
1 2 2 1
FORCES
Force The rate of change of momentum.
Field of Force A region of space where a mass will experience a force.
Hooke’s Law Hooke’s Law states that the magnitude of force F exerted by a
spring on a body attached to the spring is proportional to the
extension x of the spring from its natural length provided the
proportional limit of the spring is not exceeded.
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
Pressure due to fluid Pressure due to fluid is the force acting per unit area by the fluid.
𝑝 = ρℎ𝑔
Upthrust The net upward force exerted by a fluid on a body fully or partially
submerged in the fluid.
Archimedes’ Principle For a body submerged or floating in a fluid, the upthrust acting on the
body is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
weight of fluid displaced by the body.
𝑈 = ρ𝑉𝑔
Principle of Flotation For a body floating in a fluid, the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body is equal to the weight of the body.
Conditions for Translational: The net external force acting on a body is zero
Equilibrium Σ𝐹 = 0
𝑒𝑥𝑡
Rotational: The net moment on the body about any point is zero
Στ 𝑒𝑥𝑡
= 0
Moment of a force The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force to the
point.
τ = 𝐹(𝑟 )
⊥
Principle of Moments The principle of moments states that for a body to be in rotational
equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any point
equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about that same point.
Couple A pair of forces, which are equal in magnitude but opposite in

direction, whose lines of action do not coincide.
Torque of a couple The product of the perpendicular distance between the lines of action
of the forces and the magnitude of one of the forces.
WORK ENERGY POWER
Work done by a The work done by the force on the body is defined as the product of
constant force the magnitude of the force, F, and the displacement, s, in the
direction of the force.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ)
Work done by a The work done by a variable force acting on an object that
variable force undergoes a displacement is equal to the area under the
force-displacement graph.
Equations of Energies 𝐾𝐸 =
1
𝑚𝑣
2
2
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1 2
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2
𝑘𝑥
Power Power is defined as the rate at which work is done
𝑑𝑊
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑊
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, < 𝑝 >= ∆𝑡
SI unit: 𝑊
Relationship between When a force, F, acts on a body that is moving with velocity, v, in the
power, force, velocity direction of the force, work is done on the body at the rate given by
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣
Efficiency of energy 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
conversion 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
η= 𝐸
= 𝑃
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
CIRCULAR MOTION
Radian One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an
arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Angular Displacement The angle an object has turned about a fixed point.
∆θ = θ − θ 0
Angular Velocity The rate of change of angular displacement.
𝑑θ 2π
ω= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑇
= 2π𝑓
∆θ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, < ω >= ∆𝑡
Tangential Velocity 𝑣 = 𝑟ω
Centripetal The centripetal acceleration is directed radially inward towards the

Acceleration centre of the circular path. The direction of the centripetal
acceleration is thus continually changing.
2
𝑣 2
𝑎 𝑐
= 𝑟
= 𝑟ω = 𝑣ω
Centripetal Force 𝑚𝑣
2
2
𝐹 𝑐
= 𝑚𝑎 𝑐
= 𝑟
= 𝑚𝑟ω = 𝑚𝑣ω
GRAVITATION
Newton’s Law of Every particle attracts every other particle with a force that is
Universal Gravitation directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
𝑚 1𝑚 2
𝐹=𝐺 2
𝑟
Gravitational Field The gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a mass, in

which any other mass experiences a force of attraction.
Gravitational field strength g (at any point in a gravitational field) is
the gravitational force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed
at that point.
Gravitational Field The gravitational field strength, g, at a point is the gravitational
Strength force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at that point.
𝐹 𝑔
𝑔= 𝑚
Gravitational Field The magnitude of the gravitational field strength at a point due to a
Strength due to a particle of mass, M, at a distance, r, away from the mass is given by:
Point Mass
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑟
Gravitational Potential 𝑊 = ∆𝑈 𝐴𝐵
=𝑈 𝐵
−𝑈 𝐴
Energy
𝑀𝑚
𝑈 =− 𝐺
𝑟
Why is GPE -ve? Gravitational force is attractive in nature. To bring a mass from
infinity to a point in the field without changing its kinetic energy,
an external force opposite to the gravitational force needs to be
applied. Since the external force and displacement of the mass
are in opposite directions, the external force does negative work
on the mass in the process. As GPE at infinity is taken as zero, the
GPE at any point must be negative.
Gravitational Potential The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the

work done per unit mass, by an external force, in bringing a small
test mass from infinity to that point, without any change in
kinetic energy.
𝐺𝑀
φ =−
𝑟
−1
SI unit: 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
Relationships 𝑈 = 𝑚φ
𝑑𝑈
𝐹 𝑔
=− 𝑑𝑟
𝑑φ
𝑔 =− 𝑑𝑟
OSCILLATIONS
Simple Harmonic Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion in which the
Motion acceleration of the body:
- Is directly proportional to the displacement from its
equilibrium point, and
- Is always in the opposite direction to the displacement.
2
𝑎 =− ω 𝑥
Formulae Displacement: 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡

0
2 2
Velocity: 𝑣 = ω𝑥 =± ω 𝑥 −𝑥
0 0
2 2
Acceleration: 𝑎 = ω 𝑥 =− ω 𝑥
0
Variation of Energy 1 2 2 2
𝐸 = 𝑚ω (𝑥 −𝑥 )
with Displacement 𝑘 2 0
1 2 2
𝐸 𝑇
= 2
𝑚ω 𝑥 0
1 2 2
𝐸 𝑝
= 2
𝑚ω 𝑥
Variation of Energy 1 2 2 2
𝐸 = ( 2 𝑚ω 𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 ω𝑡
with Time 𝑘 0
1 2 2 2
𝐸 𝑝
= ( 2 𝑚ω 𝑥 0
)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡
Resonance Resonance is a phenomenon in which an oscillatory system

responds with maximum amplitude to an external periodic
driving force, when the frequency of the driving force (driver
frequency) equals the natural frequency of the driven system.
WAVES
Progressive Wave A progressive wave is a wave in which the wave profile moves
away from the source and causes energy to be transferred away
from the source to other regions.
Transverse Wave A transverse wave is a wave in which the points of disturbance

oscillate about their equilibrium positions perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel/energy propagation.
Longitudinal Wave A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the points of disturbance

oscillate about their equilibrium positions along the direction of
wave travel/energy propagation.
Displacement (waves) The displacement of a particular point on the wave refers to the
distance and direction of the point from its equilibrium position.
Amplitude The amplitude of a wave is the magnitude of the maximum

displacement of a wave.
Wavelength The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two adjacent

points which are oscillating in phase.
Period The time taken for a point on the wave to complete one oscillation
cycle.
Frequency The number of oscillations per unit time made by a point on a wave.
Wave Speed The speed of a wave is the distance that the wave profile travels per
unit time.
𝑣 = 𝑓λ
Phase Difference Phase difference is the difference between the phase of a

sinusoidally varying quantity and the phase of a second quantity
which varies sinusoidally at the same frequency.
∆φ ∆𝑡 ∆𝑥
2π
= 𝑇
= λ
Energy transmitted by Energy transmitted by a wave to a point is proportional to the

a wave square of the amplitude of the oscillator at that point.
2
𝐸∝(𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒)
Intensity of wave The intensity of a wave is the rate at which energy is transported by
the wave, per unit area, across a surface perpendicular to the
direction of propagation i.e. the power per unit area.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
2
𝐼∝(𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒) ∝(𝐸)
For a point/spherical source where the power of the wave does not
diminish as it spreads out,
1
𝐼∝ 2
𝑟
−2
SI Unit: 𝑊 𝑚
Polarisation of Waves Polarisation is a phenomenon whereby vibrations in a transverse

wave are restricted to only one direction in the plane normal to
the direction of energy transfer.
Malus’ Law For light passing through two polarises that are aligned with an angle
between their polarisation directions:
2
𝐼 = 𝐼 0𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
SUPERPOSITION
Principle of The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves
Superposition of the same kind overlap, the resultant displacement at any point
at any instant is given by the vector sum of the individual
displacements that each individual wave would cause at that point at
that instant.
Interference The superposing of two or more waves to give a resultant wave

whose displacement is given by the Principle of Superposition,
which states that the displacement of the resultant wave at any point
is the vector sum of the displacements of individual waves at that
point.
Constructive Occurs at a point when two waves meet in phase at that point. The
Interference resultant amplitude of oscillation at that point is a maximum.
Destructive Occurs at a point when two waves meet in antiphase. The resultant
Interference amplitude of oscillation at that point is a minimum.
Path Difference Distance travelled by first wave to point - distance travelled by second
wave to point.
Waves in phase: 𝑛λ, where n=1,2,3…

𝑛
Waves in antiphase: 2
λ, where n=1,3,5...
Diffraction The spreading of a wave into the geometrical shadow after passing
through a slit or around an obstacle.
Single Slit First minima occurs at θfrom the central maxima where:
λ
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑏
, where b is slit width
Rayleigh Criterion Two images are just resolved when the central maximum of one
image coincides with the first minimum of the other image/
λ
θ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
≈ 𝑏
Coherence Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference
between them.
Coherent Sources Two waves are coherent if they have a constant phase difference
between them, and the waves are of the same frequency.
Double Slit For constructive interference (maxima): 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑚λ, m=0,1,2,3…
𝑚
For destructive interference (minima): 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 2
λ, m=1,3,5…
λ𝐿
Position of bright fringes: 𝑦
𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
=𝑚 𝑑
, m=0, +/-1, +/-2, +/-3...
𝑚 λ𝐿
Position of dark fringes: 𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘
= 2 𝑑
, m= +/-1, +/-3, +/-5...
λ𝐿
Fringe separation: ∆𝑦 = 𝑑
Where d is slit separation, and L is the distance of the screen from the
slits.
Diffraction Grating For constructive interference: 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑛λ, n=0,1,2,3…
1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑁 = 𝑑
Unless the fringes are regularly spaced, DO NOT, CANNOT,

λ𝐿
ABSOLUTELY NOT USE ∆𝑦 = 𝑑
!!!
Stationary Waves When two identical waves of the same amplitude, frequency, and
speed, but travelling in opposite directions are superposed together,
the resultant wave obtained is called a stationary wave.
Resonant 𝑣
Fixed at two ends: 𝑓 = 𝑛( 2𝐿 ), where n=1, 2, 3, 4...
Wavelengths of
stretched string
Resonant vibrations 𝑣
Open-Open: 𝑓 = 𝑛( 2𝐿 ), where n=1, 2, 3, 4…
of air columns
λ
End correction:
2
= 𝐿 + 2𝑐
𝑣
Open-Closed: 𝑓 = 𝑛( 4𝐿 ), where n=1, 3, 5, 7…
λ
End correction:
4
=𝐿+𝑐
THERMAL
Thermal Equilibrium Two objects in thermal contact are said to be in thermal equilibrium
when there is no net exchange of heat between them.
Heat The transfer of energy between two objects due to a difference in

temperature between them
Zeroth Law of If bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
Thermodynamics body C, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Thermometric A physical quantity that varies continuously with temperature in a

Property repeatable manner.
Absolute Scale A scale independent of any thermometric property used.
Heat Capacity The heat capacity of an object, C, is the amount of energy that is
required to raise the temperature of the object by one unit of
temperature.
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇
−1
SI unit: 𝐽 𝐾
Specific Heat The specific heat capacity of an object, c, is the energy per unit
Capacity mass required to raise the temperature of the object by one unit of
temperature.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
−1 −1
SI unit: 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
Specific Latent Heat The specific latent heat of fusion, 𝐿 𝑓, is the energy per unit mass
of Fusion required to change a substance from solid to liquid without a change
in temperature.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿
−1
Specific Latent Heat The specific latent heat of vaporisation, 𝐿 𝑣, is the energy per unit
of Vaporisation mass required to change a substance from liquid to gas without a
change in temperature.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿
−1
Internal Energy The internal energy, U, is the summation of microscopic kinetic

energy due to random motion of the molecules and the
microscopic potential energy due to intermolecular forces.
𝑈 = Σ(𝐾. 𝐸.) 𝑚𝑖𝑐

+ Σ(𝑃. 𝐸.) 𝑚𝑖𝑐
Kinetic Theory The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of a large
number of tiny atoms or molecules which are in continuous motion.
Ideal Gas An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the ideal gas equation
of state at all pressures, temperatures, and volumes.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

−1
(R = 8.31𝐽𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙, n = no. moles of molecules, N = no. of molecules
Gas Pressure The pressure by a gas on the container is the average force per unit
area exerted by the molecules on the walls of the container.
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑃= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
(𝑛𝑜. 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑃= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
Formulae 2 Σ𝑐
2
unconnected to Mean square speed, < 𝑐 > = 𝑛

definitions:
1 2
For all ideal gases, 𝑃𝑉 = 3
𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 > and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
1 2 3
And 2
𝑚 <𝑐 > = 2
𝑘𝑇
1 2 3 3 3
𝑈 = 𝑁( 2 𝑚 < 𝑐 >) = 𝑁( 2 𝑘𝑇) = 2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 2
𝑃𝑉
3 3
For a monatomic gas, < 𝐾𝐸 > = 2
𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 2
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑔𝑎𝑠
First Law of The increase in the internal energy of a system is the sum of the
Thermodynamics heat supplied to the system and the work done on the system.
Edit: The increase in the internal energy of a system is the sum of the
heat supplied to the system and the work done on the system. The
internal energy of a system is a function of state. - Necessary for 2m
qns
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
ELECTRIC FIELDS
Principle of The principle of conservation of charge states that charge
Conservation of cannot be created or destroyed. Hence, for any closed system,
Charge the algebraic sum of all electric charges must be constant
Electric Field An electric field is a region of space where a charge will

experience an electric force.
Electric Field Strength The electric field strength, E, at a point is the electric force per
unit positive charge acting on a small test charge placed at that
point.
𝐹 1 𝑄
𝐸= 𝑞
= 4πε 2
0 𝑟
∆𝑉
For Uniform Fields, 𝐸 = ∆𝑟
−1
SI unit: 𝑁 𝐶
(Therefore electric force 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸)
Coulomb's Law The magnitude of the electrical force acting between two point
charges is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
1 𝑄𝑄' 𝑄𝑄'
𝐹= 4πε 2 = −10 2
0 𝑟 1.1121𝑥10 𝑟
Electric Potential The electric potential energy, U, of a system of charges is the

Energy work done by an external agent in assembling the system where
the charges were originally at infinity, without any change in the
kinetic energy of the charges.
𝑄 1𝑄 2
𝑈= 4πε 0𝑟
SI unit: 𝐽
Electric Potential The electric potential, V, at a point in an electric field is the work
done per unit positive charge, by an external force, in bringing
a small test charge from infinity to that point, without any
change in kinetic energy.
𝑊
𝑉= 𝑄
𝑄
𝑉 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 4πε 𝑟
0
𝑄𝑞
𝑊 = 4πε 𝑟
0
−1
SI unit: 𝐽 𝐶 but usually 𝑉is used
Change in U ∆𝑈 = 𝑈 𝐵
−𝑈 𝐴
= 𝑄(𝑉 𝐵
−𝑉 )
𝐴
Relationships 𝑑𝑈
𝐹 =− 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉
𝐸 =− 𝑑𝑟
CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY/D.C. CIRCUITS

Electric Current Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.
(The electric current, I, through the area is the rate of flow of
electric charges through the cross-sectional area of the surface)
𝑑𝑄
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
(instantaneous current)
𝑄
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝑡
(average current)
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞
Electromotive Force The energy converted per unit electric charge to electrical
energy in driving charge round a complete circuit.
SI unit: 𝑉
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑄𝐸

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑄
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸
Potential Difference The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the
energy converted per unit electric charge to other forms of
energy when the charge moved between the two points.
𝑉 = 𝑊/𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑃/𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
SI unit: 𝑉
Electrical Power 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
2 2
For production of heat in resistors only, 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑉 /𝑅 (𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
can also be used)
Resistance The resistance, R, of a device is the ratio of the potential difference

across the device to the current flowing through it.
𝑅 = 𝑉/𝐼
𝑅 = ρ(𝐿/𝐴)
For resistors in series: 𝑅 = Σ𝑅𝑛

𝑒𝑓𝑓
1 −1
For resistors in parallel: 𝑅 = (Σ 𝑅𝑛
)
𝑒𝑓𝑓
For equal resistors in parallel: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅/𝑛
Resistivity The resistance R of a piece of wire is related to its resistivity by the

formula
ρ = 𝑅(𝐴/𝐿), where L and A are the length and cross-sectional area
of the wire respectively
SI unit: Ω 𝑚
Ohm’s Law A steady current flowing through a metallic conductor is proportional

to the potential difference across it provided the temperature and
other physical conditions are constant.
Equations involving 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑟
terminal p.d.
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 or 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑅
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑅+𝑟
Potential Divider Rule 1

𝑅
𝑉1 = ( 𝑅 +𝑅 )𝐸
1 2
Current Divider Rule 𝑅

2
𝐼1 = ( 𝑅 +𝑅 )𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
1 2
For Potentiometer 𝑅𝐴𝐶 𝑙𝐴𝐵

𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐴𝐶+𝑅𝐶𝐵
𝐸 = 𝑙𝐴𝐶
𝐸
𝑙
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡, 𝐸1 = 𝑉𝑋𝑌 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑙𝐴𝐶 𝐸
𝐴𝐵
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Magnetic Flux Density The magnetic flux density, B, is the force per unit length per unit
current acting on a straight current-carrying conductor placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field.
µ0𝐼 −7
2𝑥10 𝐼
For long, straight wire: 𝐵 = 2π𝑑 = 𝑑
µ0𝑁𝐼
For flat, circular coil: 𝐵 = 2𝑟
𝑁
For long solenoid: 𝐵 = µ 𝑛𝐼 =µ 𝐼
0 0 𝑙
SI unit: 𝑇
Magnetic Force On a straight conductor: 𝐹 = 𝐵 ⊥ 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

𝐵
Between 2 long parallel current-carrying conductors, X and Y

µ0𝐼𝑥𝐼𝑌𝑙
𝐹𝑌𝑋 =
2π𝑟
On a moving electric charge: 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵 ⊥ 𝑄𝑣 = 𝐵𝑄𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
Motion of charged The magnetic force on the moving charge provides the
particle in uniform centripetal force for a circular path.
magnetic field
For radius:
2
𝑚𝑣
𝐵𝑞𝑣 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑟= 𝐵𝑞
For period:
𝑣 = 𝑟ω
2π
𝑣=𝑟 𝑇
𝑚𝑣 2π
𝑣= 𝐵𝑞 𝑇
2π𝑚
𝑇 = 𝐵𝑞
Velocity selector 𝑣=
𝐸
=
𝑉
𝐵 𝐵𝑑
Tesla The magnetic flux density of a magnetic field is 1 tesla if the force
per unit length per unit current which acts on a straight
current-carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the magnetic
field is 1 newton per metre per ampere.
Weber
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnetic Flux The magnetic flux through a plane surface is the product of the
area and the component of the magnetic flux density
perpendicular to that area.
φ=𝐵⊥𝐴
SI unit: 𝑊𝑏
Magnetic Flux Linkage The magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns
of the coil and the magnetic flux through each turn.
φ𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑁φ = 𝑁𝐵 ⊥ 𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡

SI unit: 𝑊𝑏 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Faraday’s Law The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linkage or the rate of cutting of
magnetic flux.
𝑑φ
𝐸∝ 𝑑𝑡
Lenz’s Law The polarity of the induced e.m.f. Is such that it tends to produce
a current that creates a magnetic field so as to oppose the
change in magnetic flux.
Induced e.m.f. 𝑑φ
𝐸 =− 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑁𝐵𝐴ω𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡
𝑑φ
𝐸= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝐿𝑣
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating Current Alternating current occurs when charge carriers periodically
reverse their direction of motion.
Sinusoidal AC 𝐼 =± 𝐼 0𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡 or 𝐼 =± 𝐼 0𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡
𝑉 =± 𝑉 0𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡 or 𝑉 =± 𝑉 0𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡
Root-mean-square The root-mean-square value of an alternating current is that

value (AC) equivalent constant direct current that will dissipate the same
average power in a given resistive load.
ONLY FOR SINUSOIDAL AC:

𝐼 0
𝐼 𝑟𝑚𝑠
=
2
𝑉0
𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠
=
2
1
< 𝑝 >= 2
𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Ideal Transformer An ideal transformer is 100% efficient.
𝑁 𝑠
𝑉 𝑠
𝐼 𝑝
𝑁
= 𝑉
= 𝐼
𝑝 𝑝 𝑠
QUANTUM PHYSICS
Photoelectric Effect The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are
liberated from a cool metal surface when electromagnetic
radiation of sufficiently high frequency is incident upon it.
Photon A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Its energy is

given by:
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = λ
Stopping potential The potential difference that is just enough to stop even the most
energetic photoelectrons.
Work Function The work function, ϕ, is the minimum amount of energy required
to remove an electron from the metal surface (i.e. the energy
required to remove the least strongly held electron)
Relationship between ℎ𝑓 = φ + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐸, 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥, φ
Threshold frequency 𝑓0 = φ/ℎ
The minimum frequency incident electromagnetic radiation must
have; if not, no photoelectrons will be produced, no matter how
intense the light.
Saturation Current Saturation current is the maximum current obtained from the
maximum rate of emission of photoelectrons from the emitter as all
ejected photoelectrons reach the collector.
Relationships ℎ𝑓 = φ + 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥= ℎ𝑓 − φ
𝑒𝑉𝑠= ℎ𝑓 − φ
ℎ𝑓 φ
𝑉𝑠= 𝑒 − 𝑒
Emitted photon 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓
energy
Ionisation energy The minimum energy needed to remove the outermost electron
from the atom.
How to find number of 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 =

𝑛
𝐶2
emission lines
Where n is the number of possible level jumps
Minimum emitted ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒𝑉
photon wavelength λ𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑐
λ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉
de Broglie wavelength ℎ ℎ
λ= 𝑝
= 𝑚𝑣
Heisenberg ∆𝑝∆𝑥 ≥ ℎ
Uncertainty Principle

Physics Definitions and Formulae

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Physics Definitions and Formulae

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COMMONLY TESTED STUFF:

Simple Harmonic Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion in which the

Photon A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Its energy is

Root-mean-square The root-mean-square value of an alternating current is that

Gravitational Field The gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a mass, in

Significance of Indicates the direction of the force/field.

Prefixes Prefix Order of Magnitude

Fractional Uncertainty Ratio of actual uncertainty to measured value

Percentage Uncertainty Fractional uncertainty x100%

Rules for s.f. and d.p. - Express uncertainties to 1sf

Addition/Subtraction For both addition and subtraction, add the uncertainties

Scaling If 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑎, then ∆𝑟 = 𝑘(∆𝑎)

Precision A measure of how well a result can be determined (without

Accuracy The closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true

Random error can be reduced by taking average of repeated

Random error affects precision but not accuracy.

Scalar vs Vector Scalar has magnitude but no direction.

Displacement Displacement of an object from a reference point O is the linear

Speed The rate of change of distance travelled by an object with respect to

Acceleration The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Graphs Instantaneous velocity is the gradient of the tangent to a point on an

Instantaneous acceleration is the gradient of the tangent to a point on

Viscous Drag No turbulent flow: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑣

The area under the force-time graph

Impulse-Momentum The change in momentum of a particle during a time interval

Principle of The total linear momentum of a system remains unchanged if no

Elastic collision 100% of kinetic energy is conserved

Field of Force A region of space where a mass will experience a force.

Couple A pair of forces, which are equal in magnitude but opposite in

WORK ENERGY POWER

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Power Power is defined as the rate at which work is done

Efficiency of energy 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Angular Velocity The rate of change of angular displacement.

Centripetal The centripetal acceleration is directed radially inward towards the

Gravitational Field The gravitational field is a region of space surrounding a mass, in

Gravitational Potential The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the

Formulae Displacement: 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡

Resonance Resonance is a phenomenon in which an oscillatory system

Transverse Wave A transverse wave is a wave in which the points of disturbance

Longitudinal Wave A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the points of disturbance

Amplitude The amplitude of a wave is the magnitude of the maximum

Wavelength The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two adjacent

Phase Difference Phase difference is the difference between the phase of a

Energy transmitted by Energy transmitted by a wave to a point is proportional to the

Polarisation of Waves Polarisation is a phenomenon whereby vibrations in a transverse

Interference The superposing of two or more waves to give a resultant wave

Waves in phase: 𝑛λ, where n=1,2,3…

Double Slit For constructive interference (maxima): 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑚λ, m=0,1,2,3…

Diffraction Grating For constructive interference: 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑛λ, n=0,1,2,3…

Unless the fringes are regularly spaced, DO NOT, CANNOT,

Heat The transfer of energy between two objects due to a difference in

Thermometric A physical quantity that varies continuously with temperature in a

Absolute Scale A scale independent of any thermometric property used.

Internal Energy The internal energy, U, is the summation of microscopic kinetic

𝑈 = Σ(𝐾. 𝐸.) 𝑚𝑖𝑐

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

unconnected to Mean square speed, < 𝑐 > = 𝑛

Electric Field An electric field is a region of space where a charge will

Electric Potential The electric potential energy, U, of a system of charges is the

CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY/D.C. CIRCUITS

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑄𝐸