Definitions/Laws/Principles

AS LEVEL PHYSICS 9702

Physical quantities, units and, measurements

1 Systematic An error in readings which causes the reading to be

error always larger or smaller than (or varying from) the true
reading by a constant amount.
2 Random error an error in reading which causes the readings to be
scattered above or below the true value and is also not
constant.
3 Precision the size of the smallest division (on the measuring
instrument). OR. It is determined by the range the
measurements/values/readings/data/results.
4 Accuracy how close the reading is to the true value.
5 Scalar A physical quantity that has magnitude but no direction.
6 Vector A physical quantity which has both magnitude and
direction.

Kinematics

1 Displacement distance in a specified direction (from a point).

2 Speed distance travelled per unit time.
3 Velocity The rate of change of the displacement of an object.
4 Acceleration The rate of change of an object’s velocity.

Dynamics

1 Mass it is the property of an object which resists change in motion.

OR
A measure of the amount of matter within an object.

2 Linear The product of an object’s mass and its velocity.

Momentum
3 Force Rate of change of momentum.
4 Newton The force that will give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 m
s−2 in the direction of the force. 1 N = 1 kg m s −2.
5 Newton's 1st An object will remain at rest or keep travelling at constant
law velocity unless it is acted on by a resultant force.
6 Newton's 2nd The resultant force acting on an object is equal to the rate
law of change of its momentum. The resultant force and the
change in momentum are in the same direction.
OR
For an object of constant mass, the acceleration is
proportional to the resultant force acting on it. The
direction of resultant acceleration is the same as resultant
force.
7 Newton's 3rd When two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each
law other are equal and opposite.
8 Principle of In a closed system, when bodies interact, the total
conservation of momentum in any specified direction remains constant.
linear
momentum
9 Perfectly Elastic A collision is perfectly elastic when kinetic energy is
collision conserved. Momentum and total energy are always
conserved.
10 Inelastic A collision is inelastic when kinetic energy is not
collision conserved; some is transferred to other forms such as
heat.

Forces, density and pressure

1 Centre of The point where the entire weight of an object appears to

gravity act.
2 Moment The moment of a force about a point is the magnitude of
the force, multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the
point from the line of the force.
3 Principle of For an object in (rotational) equilibrium, the sum of
moments clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point.
4 Conditions of 1) The resultant force in any direction must be zero.
equilibrium 2) The resultant torque in any direction (about any point)
must be zero.
5 Density The mass per unit volume of a material.
6 Pressure The force acting normally per unit area of a surface.
 Deformation

1 Elastic limit The value of stress (or force) beyond which an object will
not return to its original dimensions if the stress (or force)
is removed.
2 Limit of The value of stress (or force) beyond which the force and
proportionality extension (or compression) of an object are no longer
proportional to each other.
3 Hooke's law The extension/compression produced in an object is
proportional to the force producing it, provided that limit
of proportionality is not exceeded.
4 Spring constant The ratio of force to extension for a spring or a wire.
5 Stress The force acting per unit cross-sectional area (force/cross
sectional area).
6 Strain The extension per unit original length produced by tensile
or compressive forces (extension/original length).
7 Young modulus The ratio of stress to strain for a given material, resulting
from tensile forces, provided Hooke’s law is obeyed.
8 Strain energy the energy stored (in an object) due to extension /
or elastic compression / change of shape.
potential
energy

Work, energy and power

1 Work The product of the force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force.
2 Energy A calculated quantity which is conserved during any change;
that which is transferred when a force does work. (Ability to
do work.)
3 Power The rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which
work is done.
4 Efficiency The ratio of useful output energy to the total input energy
for a device, expressed as a percentage.
5 Gravitational the energy/ability to do work of a mass that it has or is
potential stored due to its position/height in a gravitational field.
energy
6 Kinetic energy the energy/ability to do work an object has due to its
motion.
7 Principle of The idea that, within a closed system, the total amount of
conservation energy in all its forms is unchanged during any change.
of energy

Waves

1 Transverse A wave in which the displacement of particles is

wave perpendicular to direction of energy propagation.
2 Longitudinal A wave in which the displacement of particles is parallel to
wave direction of energy propagation.
3 Progressive A wave that carries energy from one place to another
wave without the transfer of the medium/material.
4 Stationary or A wave pattern produced when two progressive waves of
standing wave the same frequency travelling in opposite directions
combine. It is characterised by nodes and antinodes. Energy
is trapped in a stationary wave, unlike progressive waves.
5 Displacement distance (in a specified direction of particle/point on wave)
from the equilibrium position.
6 Amplitude maximum displacement (of particle / point on wave).
7 Frequency The number of oscillations (performed by a point on the
wave) per unit time.
OR
The number of wavefronts passing a point per unit time.
8 Period time for one oscillation/one vibration/one cycle.
OR
time between adjacent wavefronts/points in phase.
OR
shortest time between two wavefronts/points in phase.
9 Wavelength distance moved by wavefront / energy during one cycle /
vibration / oscillation / period (of source) OR minimum
distance between two wavefronts/points in phase OR
distance between two adjacent wavefronts/points in phase.
10 Doppler effect The change in frequency or wavelength of a wave observed
when the source of the wave is moving towards or away
from the observer (or the observer is moving relative to the
source).
11 Unpolarised When the vibrations of a transverse wave are in all planes.
wave
12 Plane When the vibrations of a transverse wave are in one plane
polarised wave only.
13 Malul’s law When a polarised wave is passed through a polarisation
filter:
 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 (𝜃)
Where;
I = final intensity
I0 = initial intensity
𝜃 = angle between the transmission axis of the polarisation
filter and the axis of the polarised wave

Superposition

1 Principle of When two waves meet at a point, the resultant

superposition displacement of the wave produced is equal to the sum
of their individual displacements.
2 Interference the sum/addition/combination of the displacements of
overlapping/meeting waves
3 Diffraction The spreading of a wave when it passes through a gap or
past the edge of an object.
4 Coherence Two sources are coherent when they emit waves with a
constant phase difference between them.
5 Conditions for (1) (two) waves (travelling at same speed) in opposite
formation of a directions overlap, (2) (waves are same type and) have
stationary same frequency / wavelength
wave
6 Nodes A point on a stationary wave with zero amplitude.
7 Antinodes A point on a stationary wave with maximum amplitude.

Current of electricity

1 Current Rate of flow of charge.

2 Ampere 1 Ampere is the amount of current when 1 Coulomb of
charge passes a point in 1 second.
3 Coulomb Ampere second.
4 Number The number of particles, such as free electrons, per unit
density of volume in a material.
charge carriers
5 Mean Drift The average speed of a collection of charged particles
velocity when a current is flowing.
6 Electromotive work done or energy transformed (from other forms to
force (emf) electrical) when unit charge is moved round a complete
circuit.
7 Potential work done or energy transformed (from electrical to other
difference forms) per unit charge.
(p.d)
8 Volt Joules per Coulomb.
9 Resistance The ratio of potential difference to current.
10 Ohm Volts per Ampere.
11 Ohm’s law The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends, provided its
temperature remains constant.

D.C. circuits

1 Kirchhoff's 1st The sum of the currents entering any point (or junction) in a
law circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that same
point. This law represents the conservation of charge.
2 Kirchhoff's The sum of the e.m.f.s round a closed loop in a circuit is
2nd law equal to the sum of the p.d.s in that same loop. This law
represents the conservation of energy.

Particle physics

1 Isotopes Nuclei of the same element with a different number of

neutrons but the same number of protons.
2 Antimatter An antiparticle has the same mass as a matter particle but
equal and opposite charge. When a particle and its
antiparticle interact, they annihilate each other and their
mass coverts into pure energy.
3 Fundamental a particle that is not made up of any other particles.
particles
4 Hadrons Any particle which is affected by the strong nuclear force.
5 Baryons Hadrons that are made up of 3 quarks.
6 Mesons Hadrons that are made of 1 quark and 1 antiquark.
7 Leptons Any particle which is not affected by the strong nuclear
force.