PHYSICS A-LEVEL

AUTHOR: KG/ ARCTIC KITTEN

For Edexcel Physics

2018

CONTENTS

Topic 2: Mechanics .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Topic 3: Electric Circuit ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Topic 4: Materials ................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Topic 5: Waves and Particle nature of light ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Topic 6: Further Mechanics ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
Topic 7: Electric and Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Topic 8: Nuclear and particles Physics .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Topic 9: Thermodynamics ................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Topic 10: Space ................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Topic 11: Nuclear Radiation .............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Topic 12: Gravitation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Topic 13: Oscillation .......................................................................................................................................................................... 37
TOPIC 2: MECHANICS

Name Definition Formulae

STATIC
Centre of mass The point from which all the mass of the object appears to act
Centre of gravity The point from which all the weight of the object appears to act
KINEMATICS
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Suvat equations
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
(𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡
𝑠=
2
NEWTON’S LAWS
An object will remain at rest, or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line,
Newton’s First Law
unless acted upon by a resultant force
Newton’s Second The resultant force is directly proportional to the rate of change of
Law momentum and in the same direction of the momentum
To every action, there’s an equal and opposite reaction
 Act on different bodies
Newton’s Third Law  Opposite direction
 Same magnitude
 Same kind
MOMENT
The force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑
Moments
of action of the force Unit: Nm
For any object in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any
Law of moments
point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment about the same point
WORK DONE, ENERGY & POWER
The product of:
F (magnitude of the force) 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Work Done
s (magnitude of displacement s of point of application of force) Unit: 𝐽 = 𝑁𝑚
cos  ( is the angle between the force and displacement vector)
Energy The property of object that gives it the ability to do work
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
The work done to accelerate an object of mass m, from rest to a speed v 2
Kinetic energy 𝑝2
∆𝐸𝑘 = 𝐸𝑘′ − 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑊𝐷 =
2𝑚
Potential energy The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its position or state
Gravitational
The energy an object has due to its position in a gravitational field 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
potential energy
The rate of doing work with respect to time ∆𝑊
Power 𝐽 𝑃=
Unit: 𝑊 = ∆𝑡
𝑠
 1 watt is 1 J of E transferred in 1 sec 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐸 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency 𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
END
TOPIC 3: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Name Definition Formulae

ELECTRICITY
Energy transferred when an electron moves through a potential 1𝑒𝑉
Electron-volt = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
difference of one volt
Drift velocities 𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚
= 106 𝑚⁄𝑠
Motion of electron in
a wire 𝑣𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡
= 10−4 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠

The rate of flow of charged particle ∆𝑄

𝐼=
Current 𝑛: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑡

Different metals have different conductivity because different n 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝐴

Potential difference The energy/charge transferred between two point 𝑊

𝑉=
WD per unit charge to move a charge around the circuit 𝑄
emf
Emf = pd when 𝐼 = 0 because no energy/ pd lost on resistors 𝜀 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟
Plot V (across battery) against I
Gradient = -r
Y intercept is emf
𝑉
Resistance The opposition to the flow of electrical current 𝑅=
𝐼
Ohm’s Law A special case where 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 for constant temperature

Total resistance

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
Resistivity Numerically equal to the resistant of a unit length and a unit area of wire 𝐴
Unit: 𝛺𝑚
𝑉2
Power 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
Critical temperature The temperature below which its resistivity instantly drop to zero
 CURRENT-POTENTIAL GRAPH
Ohmic conductors Filament bulb Diodes
Forward direction: low R
Require a minimum driving V in
 current flow, Temperature 
the forward direction
Ions vibrates more, probability
Obeying Ohm’s Law Threshold voltage 0.6V
of collision , electron lose
more energy Backward direction: high R
Few charge carriers  leakage
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝐴  so resistance 
Reverse pd high enough
overcome E barrier
Thermistor LDR
Temperature , more energy
Electrons gain energy from light
transfer to lattice ions
Light intensity , electrons to
Electrons to conduction band
conduction band
charge carriers density ,
Charge carriers density , current 
current 
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 resistance 
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 resistance 
END
TOPIC 4: MATERIALS

Name Definition Formulae

LIQUIDS
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝
The upthrust on an object in a fluid =the weight of the fluid displaced by the 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔
Upthrust
object 𝑈 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝
𝑔

Terminal Upthrust + drag = weight

𝑈+𝐷 =𝑊
velocity No resultant force so velocity is constant
Falling object:
At first, 𝐷 = 0
𝐷 ∝ 𝑣 so drag force increases
𝑊 − 𝑈 − 𝐷 = 𝐹 so resultant force decreases
When 𝐷 + 𝑈 = 𝑊 no resultant forces so N1L terminal velocity
Fluid Substance that can flow
A curve whose tangent at any point is along the direction of the velocity of the
Streamline
fluid particle at that point
Path line The path taken by a fluid particle as it moves
Steady flow Occurs when no aspect of the fluid motion change with time
Fluid move with uniform lines in which velocity is constant over time

Laminar flow • No mixing of layers

• Flows in layers/flowlines/streamlines
• No abrupt change in direction or speed of flow
Mixing of layers
Turbulent flow Contains eddies/vortices
Abrupt/random changes in speed or direction
For a spherical object of rad r
Stokes’ Law Moving slowly through a fluid with speed v 𝐹𝑑 = 6𝜋 𝑟𝑣
The flow of fluid is laminar
The thickness of a fluid. Viscosity increase, rate of flow decrease (spread
quicker)
Viscosity 
Liquids,   with temperature
Gasses,  
Drag for 𝐶𝑑 :drag coef, no unit 1
turbulent flow 𝐹𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝜌𝑣 2
A: area of object facing fluid flow 2
The extension under a certain load will be different depending on its history of
Hysteresis
past load and extension
HOOKE’S LAW
The extension, e, is directly proportional to the applied force, if the limit of
Hooke’s Law proportionality is not exceeded 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
k: the stiffness of the spring/ the spring constant
 Outside the region that obeys Hooke’s law:
Extension not proportional to force (greater extension for same force)
Deform plastically, not return to original shape
1
The ability of a deformed material to do work as it regains its original length 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒
Elastic’s 2
Potential Energy Area under a force-extension graph 1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒 2
2
YOUNG MODULUS
𝐹
Stress The force per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the surface 𝜎=
𝐴
𝑒
Strain Fractional change in length of the material 𝜖=
𝐿
𝜎
The stress per unit strain 𝐸=
𝜖
Using thin long wire to measure Young modulus:
Young’s Small extension is hard to measure and has high uncertainty
Modulus 𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Thin wire has smaller A hence larger P for a given F
Long wire: greater extension for a given stress
 Name Definition Note
GRAPH
P/ Limit of The maximum extension that an object can
proportionality exhibit, which still obeys Hooke’s Law
The maximum extension or compression
that a material can undergo and still return
E/ Elastic limits
to its original dimension when the force is
removed
The point after which a small increase in
Y/ Yield point stress produces an appreciably greater
increase in strain.

UTS/ Ultimate The maximum tensile stress the material can

Tensile Stress withstand before breaking PEYU
If the mass exceeds maximum mass
State The elastic limit is exceeded
maximum load Spring deform permanently
Spring constant change
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Strength The maximum compressive stress applied before breaking
Strong/ Weak Strong: High breaking stress (steel) Weak: Low breaking stress
Stiff: High Young’s Modulus, large stress for
Stiff/ Flexible Flexible: Low Young’s Modulus
small deformation
Tough: large plastic deformation region on Brittle: little plastic deformation before breaking
Tough/ Brittle
graphabsorb lots of energy absorb little energy
Plastic: Extend extensively and irreversibility for a
Elastic: Regain their original shape when
Elastic/ Plastic small increase in stress beyond the yield point
deforming force/stress is removed
(copper, clay)
Hardness Resistance to scratch on surface
Hard/ Soft Hard: Not easy to scratch or indent Soft: Easy to scratch or indent
Ductile: Undergo large plastic deformation Malleable: Undergo large plastic deformation under
Ductile/
under tension and hence can be made/ compression and hence can be hammered into thin
Malleable
drawn into wires sheets
END
TOPIC 5: WAVES AND PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT

Name Definition Note

BASICS OF WAVE
Mechanical wave Wave require medium to travel through
Electromagnetic
Require no medium to travel through
wave
Has oscillations that are parallel to the
Longitudinal direction of movement of the wave energy
Waves (Vibrations of the particles parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave)
Area in which particle oscillation put them
Compression
closer than their equilibrium state
Area in which the particle oscillation put
Rarefaction
them further apart than their eq state
The oscillations are perpendicular to the
Transverse wave
direction of movement of the wave energy
Distance and direction from the equilibrium
Displacement
position
The magnitude of maximum displacement
Amplitude
from the equilibrium position
The number of complete oscillations per unit Snapshot of the wave
Frequency
time
Period The time taken for one complete oscillation

𝑣= = 𝑓
𝑇
Speed
𝑇
𝑣 = √ (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒)
𝜇

Minimum distance between two point on a

Wavelength
wave with the same displacement
STANDING/ STATIONARY WAVES
No net transfer of energy
Standing wave 2𝑙
=
𝑛
Nodes Points where the amplitude of oscillation is 0
Points where amplitude of oscillation is
Antinodes
maximum
Two waves with same amplitude and
wavelength travelling at opposite direction/
Producing standing reflected off
wave Principle of superposition give resultant
displacement
Nodes and antinodes produced
 Constructive interference occurs when phase
difference = 0
Destructive interference occur when phase
difference = 𝜋

𝑇 2𝑙
𝑣 = √ ; 𝑣 = 𝑓;  =
𝜇 𝑛
Harmonics
𝑛 𝑇
∴𝑓= ×√
2𝑙 𝜇

Name Definition Note

PHASE
Phase of The stage of a given point on a wave is
oscillation through a complete cycle
The difference in phase angle between two
Phase
parts of the same oscillation or between two
difference
oscillation
Phase difference = 𝑛𝜋, n even
In phase
Path difference = 𝑛
Phase difference = 𝑛𝜋, n odd
Antiphase
Path difference= 𝑛/2 𝜋 3𝜋
OP: 2𝜋 − 2 = 2
The line of a crest or trough of a transverse
Wave front wave/ compression of rarefaction of 3𝜋 𝜋
OO’: − = 𝜋
2 2
longitudinal wave 𝜋 𝜋
OQ: 𝜋 − =
Waves with same frequency and constant 2 2
Coherence
phase difference
Monochromatic Same frequencies
The superposition outcomes of a combination
Interference
of waves
Constructive Take place when the path difference is a
Interference whole number of wavelength
Destructive
Path difference is 1/2, 3/2, 5/2… wavelength
Interference
Produce interference:
Superposition takes place
Path difference = 𝑛𝜆 in phase
In phase: constructive interference
Antiphase: destructive interference
Antiphase amplitude = minimum = 0
Fringes Pattern of light and dark band
Principle of When two or more waves meet, the total displacement at any point is the sum of the
superposition displacements that each individual wave cause at that point
 Polarisation Orientation of the plane of oscillation of a transverse wave
Oscillations occurs in only one plane or directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
Polarised waves
the wave
Reflected light/ incident light is polarised
Polarised light vibrates in one direction
Polaroid only allow oscillation in one plane
Polaroid
When planes are parallel it allows plane through, the intensity is high
Perpendicular block the light, intensity = 0
Each rotation by 𝜋 will alternatively block and allow the light through

Name Definition
LENS
Focal length The distance from the centre of the length to the focal point
Focus The point where parallel incident rays be made to meet by the refraction of the lens
1 1 1
Thin lens equation = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
ℎ1 𝑣
Magnification 𝑚= =
ℎ0 𝑢
1
Power 𝑃=
𝑓
Combination 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
Cause light to converge, f is positive
Convex lens
Converge parallel rays to a focus at the focal length from the lens
Cause light to diverge, f is negative
Concave lens Diverge parallel rays to appear to have come from a virtual focus at the focal length
back from the lens
𝑣 > 0: real, inverted
Images
𝑣 < 0: virtual, upright

Name Definition Formulae Note

REFRACTION – TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
The change in direction of a
wave occurs when its speed
Refraction
change due to a change of
medium
Refractive 𝑐
𝜇=
index 𝑣
𝑣1
Relative 𝜇12 =
Wave travelling from medium 𝑣2
refractive
1 to medium 2 1 If 𝜇2 > 𝜇1 Then material 2 is optically denser
index 𝜇12 =
𝜇21 than material 1.
 𝑐 𝑣2 < 𝜇1
Absolute 𝜇1 = ≥1
𝑣1
refractive Light travelling in medium 1 𝜃2 < 𝜃1
𝜇2
index 𝜇12 =
𝜇1
𝜇1 sin 𝜃1
Snell’s law = 𝜇2 sin 𝜃2

The change in direction of a

wave at an interface between
two different media so that
Reflection
the wave returns into the
medium from which it
originated
The angle of incidence for
Critical angle which the angle of refraction 1
is 900 = sin 𝐶
𝜇1
Total When the angle of incidence 1
Internal is bigger than critical angle → 𝐶 = sin−1
𝜇1
Reflection light does not refract but
(TIR) bounces back at the interface
DIFFRACTION
The spread out of the wave
Diffraction when it meets a solid
obstacle
For most of the light waves 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
there is destructive 𝑑
interference 1
Diffraction =
Path difference = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
gratings
Constructive interference → 𝑛: 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑛
𝑑
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤


Name Definition Notes

WAVE THEORY

Young’s double slit

experiment

Monochromatic coherent light passes through two parallel slits

Light behaves light a wave
The waves through the slits diffract, two diffracted waves overlaps
Principle of superposition determines the resultant wave displacement at any point
 Constructive interference where in phase  bright fringe
Destructive interference where out of phase  dark fringe
The size of wavelength of photon is similar to the size of the slit
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Photon Packet of electromagnetic radiation
Electron released from a metal surface as a result of
Photoelectron
its exposure to electromagnetic radiation
Shine light on a metal surface, electron might be
Experiment
emitted
Increase frequency Increase amplitude
𝑓 < 𝑓0 No electron emitted Nothing happen
Results
Max KE of electron increase as Number of electron emitted/ s ,
𝑓 > 𝑓0
frequency  max KE does not change
Photon cause emission of electron from surface of
metal
Photon has energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
One photon hit one electron 1
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
Explanation 2
If 𝐸 > 𝜙 emission occurs
1
𝑚𝑣 2 is KE of electron emitted
2
Max because some energy lost to get to the metal
surfaces
Minimum frequency that can cause electron If 𝑓 < 𝑓0 no e- are emitted
Threshold frequencies
emission If 𝑓 ≥ 𝑓0 e- are emitted
Minimum energy needed to remove an electron
Work function
from the metal surface
The energy in waves theory depend only on amplitude not frequency
Increasing light intensity should increase maximum KE, max KE not depend of frequency
Wave theory not explain
photoelectric effect Predict a delay between shining the light and emission of electron
Cannot account for a threshold frequency of the metal/ emission occurs at all
frequencies
Increase the light intensity increase number of electron emitted/s
One photon release one electron
Particle theory explain
Energy of photon depend on frequency not intensity 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Intensity determines number of electrons
Quantum object sometimes have wave like properties & sometime have particle like
Wave-particle duality
properties depend on the experiment done on them
ENERGY LEVELS/ QUANTISATION OF ENERGY
Electron gains energy (become excite) and move to
higher levels
Line spectrum/ Photon Energy lost:
Electron has fixed energy level
emission 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇
Electrons fall to lower level, reduce energy by
emitting photons
 Photon has specific energy hence form line
spectrum
Ground state The lowest energy level for a system
The energy state that is higher energy than the
Excitation
ground state
A specific quantity of energy an electron can/ is
Energy level
allowed to have inside an atom
The wavelength associated with a particle with a ℎ ℎ
De Broglie wavelength = =
given momentum 𝑝 𝑚𝑣
END
TOPIC 6: FURTHER MECHANICS

Name Definition Formulae

MOMENTUM
Momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Impulse Change in momentum 𝐼 = 𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝
𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = (𝑝 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = (𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
If 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎
Newton’s second Law 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
If 𝑚 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
If 𝑚 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑣 ≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If 𝐸𝑟 = 0 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0
The total momentum before a collision is the same as total
Conservation of momentum after collision
𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
momentum (provided that there is no external force acting on the
system)
Elastic collision KE is conserved (e.g. Identical masses move apart at 90O)
Inelastic collision KE is not conserved (e.g. explosions, stick after collision)
CIRCULAR MOTION
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
Angular velocity 2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
Centripetal 2
𝑣
acceleration 𝑎= = 𝜔2 𝑟
𝑟
A resultant force is required to produce and maintain 𝑚𝑣 2
Centripetal force 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
circular motion 𝑟
No reaction forces
Weightlessness For astronauts on ISS, gravitational force = centripetal force,
hence no reaction force
END
TOPIC 7: ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD

Name Definition Formulae Notes

ELECTROSTATICS

Radial field

𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝐹=
𝑟2
Forces between two charges obey an 1
Coulomb’s Law
inverse 𝑘=
4𝜋𝜀0
= 8.9 × 109

A region where a charged particle

Electric field
experience a force
Electric field The force per unit charge acting on a 𝐹 𝑘𝑄
𝐸= = 2
strength small positive charge 𝑞 𝑟
Electrical The work done against the electric
𝑘𝑄𝑞
Potential field in moving the charge from infinity 𝐸𝑃𝐸 =
Energy to that point in the field 𝑟

Electrical 𝑃 𝐸 𝑘𝑄
𝑉= = 𝑉=
Potential 𝐼 𝑄 𝑟
𝑄
𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
CAPACITOR
Field strength are equal at all point
Uniform field Arrows show the direction of a small (+) charges will
move when placed in the electric field
Equipotential
The plates, always perpendicular to the electric field line
surface
Electric field 𝑉
d: distance from positive plate 𝐸=
strength 𝑑
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Capacitance Charge stored per unit p.d. 𝐴𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟 : relative permittivity
=
𝑑 For air, 𝜀𝑟 = 1
Capacitor A device for storing charges
 1
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉
2
The area under the graph (triangle) 1 2
Energy stored = 𝐶𝑉
by a capacitor 1 2
𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑄2
2 =
2𝐶

Time taken for the charge to fall to

Time constant RC
0.37 of its initial value

Charging Shape of graph (current) exponential decay, current decrease by

equal fraction in equal time interval
The cell pushes charges through the circuit
A current flows, charges are added to the || until 𝐼 = 0 −𝑡⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑐 increases, 𝑉𝑅 decreases, 𝐼 decrease
𝑡
𝑄 𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 −
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶
𝐶

Discharging

Capacitor pushes charges (opposite direction) through the resistor

from negative plate to positive plate
A current flow, charges are removed exponentially till 0

Changing AC
to DC

Smoothed DC, Exponential decay Rectified circuit

Capacitor store charges Current change direction Normal circuit
If RC > T of AC, the capacitor (Charge battery: without
 doesn’t fully discharge before diode charges and discharge)
being charged

𝐴𝜀0
𝐶=
𝑑
Microphone
condenser So as d , C, Q, I
1
If 𝑅𝐶 < , I vary with frequency f
𝑓

Irms is equal to the direct current 𝑽𝟎

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
Root mean that give the same average power √𝟐
square output 𝑰𝟎
̅ = 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑹 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑷 √𝟐

Name Definition Formulae Note

FLUX
The force per unit length per unit 𝐹
𝐵=
Magnetic current on a long straight wire 𝐼𝐿
flux density perpendicular to the magnetic field 1
=𝑐
lines √𝜀0 𝐼0
The B*(the area perpendicular to the 𝜙
Flux = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 Unit: Wb
field lines)
Flux linkage For a coil of N turn Φ = 𝑁𝜙 Unit: Wb or Wb turn
MAGNETIC FIELD

The direction of magnetic field is the

Magnetic
direction North pole of compass will
field
point if placed in the field

A moving charge create a magnetic

field
Field line are concentric circles
The magnetic field gets weaker as the
distance from the wire increase
Magnetic Right-hand grip rule tells the direction
field around of the field
a wire All magnetic field are closed loops
All magnetic field are created by a
moving electrical charge
Fleming’s left-hand rule give direction
Two parallel wires carry current in the
same direction attracts
CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR
 𝐹
Equation = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 sin 𝜃

The coil will rotate

Speed of the motor depend on B, I, N,
Area of the coil
The commutator ensures that the
The dynamo current always flow in the same
effect direction around the loop so the loop
rotate in the same direction.
Magnetic flux goes from 0 to a
maximum
An alternating emf is produced
CHARGED PARTICLE BEAMS

F perpendicular to v, v is constant 𝐹
Equation = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 sin 𝜃
hence centripetal force

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnitude of the induced emf is
Faraday’s 𝑑(𝑁𝜙 )
directly proportional to the rate of ℇ= Flux changeinduced emf
Law 𝑑𝑡
change of flux linkage
To create a current in the coil work must be
The induced emf cause a current to ℇ
done so there is a force
Lenz’s Law flow as to oppose the change in flux −𝑑(𝑁𝜙 )
=  induce B field in the coil oppose the change
linkage that creates it 𝑑𝑡
in B field

As magnet move, there’s a change in flux

Faraday’s law: induced emf proportional to the rate
of change in flux
Initial increase in emf as magnet get closer to the coil
Magnet & When magnet is fully inside the coil there is no
coil change in flux so no emf
Changing direction of magnet, direction of emf
change
Magnitude of emf depends on the speed of magnet
Same total flux so the areas of two graphs are equal

Work done by magnet:

Lenz’s law, induced current creates a B field to
oppose motion
Hence force in opposite direction to its motion
 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 hence work is done

Ways to create induced emf:

Moving the magnet
Changing the current (turn on off)
Change into alternating current

TRANSFORMER

An electrical machine for converting an input AC PD into a different output AC PD

Transformer effect
𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑃 : Step up transformer
𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑃 : Step down transformer
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= =
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
The changing I in the primary coil create an changing B field in the iron core
There is a changing in flux linked to the second coil
𝑑(𝑁𝜙 )
Faraday’s law (ℇ = ) there’s an induced emf
𝑑𝑡
Ideal transformer: No flux loss
𝑁
Since 𝑁𝑆 < 1 Step down transformer so low emf across secondary coil
𝑃

Ohmic Make wire resistances small so heating losses are

The primary and secondary coils get hot
losses small
Flux
Not all the flux stays in the iron core
Energy loss

losses Use soft iron core so the flux linkage is as large as

possible & hysteresis losses are as small as
Hysteresis Magnetising and demagnetising the core possible
losses produce heat
The changing flux in the iron core creates
Eddy Use laminated core, so the eddy current are as
current in the core, which also generate
current small as possible
heat, dissipate energy
Power plant

END
TOPIC 8: NUCLEAR AND PARTICLES PHYSICS

Name Definition Notes

Nucleon/ mass Number of nucleons in the nucleus
number
Proton/ atomic Number of protons in the nucleus
number
A metal is heated
Free electron gain KE
Thermionic KE > Φ the electron escape from the metal surface
Emission (how charged particles produced for use in particles accelerator)

RUTHERFORD SCATTERING

Rutherford’s
Scattering

Fire a beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold

Count the number of α particles scattered at different angles
Most go straight through θ ~ 0o
Results Some α particles will be deflected by large angles (θ ~ 90o)
A few α particles reflected/ go straight back (θ ~ 180o)
The atom is mostly empty
Conclusion
All the positive charges and most of the mass is contained in a very small region
Most does not get near enough to any matter to be affected
Some came close enough to the charge to be affected
Reasons
A few deflected so nucleus must have mass much greater than the alpha particle mass to cause
this deflection
PARTICLE PHYSICS
Particle Physics

For every particle that is an identical particle with opposite electric charge called its antiparticles
Antiparticles When a particle meets its own antiparticle, they annihilate, the energy released makes new
particles
De Broglie:
𝒉
𝝀=
𝒑
To look at small distance λ must be small
Investigate
Nucleons So p must be large
Structure So E must be large
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4
If 𝑝 ≫ 𝑚𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐
FUNDAMENTAL: not made out of other particles
Electron Electron neutrino
1st gen
𝑒− 𝜈𝑒
Muon Muon neutrino
Leptons 2nd gen Have a Leptons
− 𝜈𝜇
𝜇
Tau Tau neutrino
3rd gen
−
𝜏 𝜈𝜏
Up Down 1st gen
2⁄ 1⁄
𝑢+ 3 𝑑− 3

Charm Strange 2nd gen

Quarks 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑐+ 3 𝑠− 3

Top Bottom 3rd gen

2⁄ 1⁄
𝑡+ 3 𝑏− 3

HADRON
Proton Neutron Contains 3 quarks
Baryons
𝑝+ 𝑛0 Baryon number 𝐵 = +1
Pions Contain
Mesons
𝜋+ 𝜋0 𝜋− 1 quark + 1 antiquark
 BOSON
When particles interact, they are affected by one of 4 possible
forces:
 Gravity (Graviton): act on energy
 Electromagnetism (Photon): charged particles
 Strong force (Gluons): quarks
Gauge Bosons  Weak force (W+, W-, Zo) log
In Newtonian physics, we describe these forces using fields
In quantum mechanics, the idea of fields is replaced by the
transfer of particles called gauge bosons
We then call these interactions, instead of forces

Name Definition Notes

PARTICLES ACCELERATOR

When the next tube is positive the electron accelerates across the gap
Inside each tube, the electron has constant v
High-frequency supply ensure tube has the correct potential to accelerate the e-
LINACS
As particles are accelerated by the E field between the tube their speed increase
The AC frequency is constant
So the time inside each tube must be a constant = ½ period of the AC
So the tube must be longer when v
The tube will increase in length until the speed reach the speed of light (constant) then the tube
lengths become constant

𝑚𝜋
𝐵𝑞 =
𝑡
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝐵𝑞
𝐵𝑞
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑚
Cyclotron

The e- accelerate across the gap end with speed v

Inside the dee, the e- move in a semi-circle
Time inside the dee
𝜋𝑟 𝑣 𝜋
𝑡= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑣 𝑟 𝑡
So
 𝑚𝜋
𝐵𝑞 =
𝑡
E field produce a force
Facing dee is always negative (for proton)
Increases the KE of the particles across the gap
∆𝐸𝐾 = 𝑞𝑉
B field causes the direction of the particles inside the Dees change
Limitation:
When vc, cyclotron stop accelerating particle
Newton’s Law of motion don’t apply when vc
Radius of orbit  as energy  but v constant, so time inside dee  so frequency 
Curvature
Some particle tracks curve ‘clockwise’ others ‘anticlockwise’
Some have positive charge, some have negative charge
Fleming’s left-hand rule tells us the sense of curvature
Charge particles gain KE so p 
𝑟 ∝ 𝑝 so r
The curvature decreases along the length
Accelerate the particles with an electrical field Synchrotron vs Cyclotron
Particle path is bent with a magnetic field The particles move in a circle
Radius of path is constant As KE, B to keep r constant
Synchrotron
As particle E, E field get stronger
Because the particles are accelerating, they lose E by
emitting radiation (synchrotron radiation)
The magnetic field causes the track to bend
Uncharged particles leave no track
Electric field:
Accelerate particle
Direction of force indicates sign of charge
Bubble
𝐸𝑄
Chamber 𝑎=
𝑚
Magnetic field:
Circular motion
Direction of curvature indicates sign of charge
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
 Only moving charged particles leave a track
Pion are charged so leave a track
Pion interact with a stationary charged particle
2 neutral particles created (because no track) to conserve
charge
Track in different direction so momentum conserved
Both particles decayed into opposite charged particle
because charge is conserved
At all collision momentum and charge are conserved
Ad: lots of collision
Dis: There’s momentum before collision so momentum after collision
Fixed target Particles created must have KE
So not all KE converted into mass
Not many particles are created and their masses are not very big
Ad: Final 𝑝 = 0 so final KE is small
Colliding All energy goes into making new particle
beams  can make new massive particles
Dis: Not many collisions
END
TOPIC 9: THERMODYNAMICS

Name Definition Formulae

Specific heat The amount of heat energy required to change the temperature ∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃
capacity of a unit mass of a substance by a unit temperature
Specific The amount of heat energy required per unit mass of a substance ∆𝐸 = 𝐿∆𝑚
latent heat to change the state from … to … at a constant temperature
KINETIC THEORY
Assumption:
 A gas is made of lots of particles
 Volume of particle << Volume of container
Kinetic  Particles move at random
model of gas  Particles collide elastically (KE is conserved)
 No potential energy between particle (PE=0)
 The mean KE of particle is directly proportional to the
temperature
Internal Random distribution of potential and kinetic energy among the
energy molecules
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
Ideal gas 1 1
equation 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 2 > = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝜌 < 𝑐 2 >
3 3
Initial x momentum: 𝑚𝑣𝑥
Final x momentum: −𝑚𝑣𝑥
∆𝑝 = 2𝑚𝑣𝑥
Time between collision:
2𝐿
𝑡=
𝑣𝑥
N2L, average force on wall
∆𝑝 2𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑥2
𝐹= = =
𝑡 2𝐿 𝐿
Derive 𝑣𝑥
𝒑𝑽 = Total force on wall
𝟏
𝑵𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝑚𝑣𝑥2 𝑚
𝟑 ∑ = ∑ 𝑣𝑥2
𝐿 𝐿
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

Mean squared speed

2
∑(𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 )
< 𝑐 >=
𝑁
Moving randomly: ∑ 𝑣𝑥2 = ∑ 𝑣𝑥2 ∑ 𝑣𝑦2 = ∑ 𝑣𝑧2
3 ∑ 𝑣𝑥2
< 𝑐2 > =
𝑁
𝑁 < 𝑐2 >
∑ 𝑣𝑥2 =
3
 𝑚 𝑁<𝑐 2 >
Therefore, total force 𝐹= ×
𝐿 3
Pressure
𝐹 𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 2 >
𝑃= =
𝐴 3𝐿3
But 𝑉 = 𝐿3 so
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 2 >
3
Internal energy = KE + PE
Fr ideal gas, PE = 0 so Internal energy = KE
1 1
𝑈 = ∑ 𝑚(𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 ) = 𝑁𝑚 < 𝑐 2 >
2 2
2
∴ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝑈
3
1 3
∴ 𝑈 = 𝑁𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
2 2
For a fixed amount of an ideal gas at a constant temperature: 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Boyle’s Law
Its pressure is inversely proportional to its volume
Pressure For a fixed amount of an ideal gas at a constant volume: 𝑃1 𝑃2
=
Law Its pressure is directly proportional to its temperature 𝑇1 𝑇2

For a fixed amount of an ideal gas at a constant pressure: 𝑉1 𝑉2

Charles’ Law =
Its volume is directly proportional to its temperature 𝑇1 𝑇2

Absolute The temperature at which the pressure/ volume of a gas become 1 3

𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 < 𝑐 2 >= 𝑘𝑇
zero zero 2 2
BLACK BODIES

Maxwell-
Boltzmann How many molecules will have a speed in a small range of speed
Distribution

At every temperature above 0K objects radiate energy as

electromagnetic wave
Black bodies
A blackbody absorbs all the radiation that falls on it
radiator
Total energy radiated per second only depends on the surface area A
and the absolute temperature T
Stefan- 𝐸 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4
The total amount of energy radiated per second is proportional to
Boltzmann
the surface area A and the absolute temperature
Law
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2.898 × 103
Wein’s Law = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

END
TOPIC 10: SPACE

Name Definition Note

STELLAR PARALLAX
Intensity/ 𝐿
Flux 𝐼=
4𝜋𝑑2
The apparent shift in the position of a
nearby star, relative to more distant ones,
due to the moment of the Earth around
the Sun.
The star is viewed from two positions at 6-
Stellar month intervals
Parallax
The change in angular position of the star
against backdrop of fixed stars is
measured
Use trigonometry parallax to calculate the
distance
The distance that a star would be if it had
Parsec
a parallax of 1 arcsec
Over the course of one year the stars will
trace out an elliptical path on the sky.
Elliptical Stars have orbits not perpendicular to 1𝐴𝑈
orbit earth will appear to have elliptical orbits 𝑑=
𝜃
because only see the projection of the 1
diameter. 𝑑(𝑝. 𝑠. ) =
𝜃(′′)
When d is large θ is small so the fractional
Large uncertainty is large, therefore there is a
distance large fractional uncertainty in the
calculated value of d.
Since Mars is farther away from the Sun
than the Earth, for a given parallax we can
calculate a larger value of stellar distance.
STANDARD CANDLES
Standard An astronomical object whose luminosity
candle is know
Giant stars that become unstable and
pulsate: their diameters oscillate and
therefore they vary in luminosity
Cepheid variables out ward pressure P
and inward gravity compression are out of
Cepheid sync so the star and temperature pulsates
variables
Determine distance to Cepheid
Measuring period T
𝐿 = 4𝜋𝜎𝑅 2 𝑇 4 give luminosity
𝐿
Light flux can be determined 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑑2
 Inverse square law gives the distance
The explosion of stars that have run out of
fuel for nuclear fusion in their cores.
Type 1a are standard candles
Type 1a supernovae are extremely
Supernovae luminous they can be seen from a very
large distance
The light curve must be calibrated by
using Cepheid variables to determine the
distance to a galaxy that contains a type
1a supernovae
HR DIAGRAM
HR diagram A Luminosity-Temperature diagram
Main Stars that convert Hydrogen into Helium
sequence via thermonuclear fusion in the core
Blue giants Large mass, high temp and luminosity
Low temp, high luminosity, converting He-
Red giants
4 to C-12 and O-16
Core of a red giant star
Do not have fusion reaction
Radius is very small
𝐿 = 4𝜋𝜎𝑅 2 𝑇 4 so luminosity is low
White Surface temperature is high, 𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 is in
dwarfs UV spectrum
Emits a lot of light in visible spectrum so
appear white

Stars are very good black bodies.

The total radiations they emit per second
only depend on the surface area and the
absolute temperature.
They obey Stefan’s law:
𝐿 = 4𝜋𝜎𝑅 2 𝑇 4
Star
And Wein’s law:
𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑇 = 2.898 × 103
A star position on the HR depend on its
mass and its age
Stars are large ball of gas (mostly
hydrogen, helium)
Gravity cause a large cloud of gas and dust
Life cycle of to collapse & heat up
the stars When neutral temperature reach ≈
106 𝐾, nuclear reaction starts in the
 centre, H is converted to He
A star is born, its life cycle of a star
depends on its mass
Young star groups have more red giant
stars
Planetary Shell of gas ejected from RG star on its
nebula way to becoming a WD
Rotating neutron star with a very string
magnetic field
Pulsar
Pulsars beam radiation out along their
magnetic axis
Gaseous Large cloud of gas & dust. They have very
nebula low temperature and density

Name Definition Notes

Doppler’s effect
CMBR Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation:
Come from all part of the sky
Its intensity is almost the same in every direction
Black body radiation produced in the hot Big Bang
Whose wavelength have been stretched by the cosmological expansion
The peak wavelength Is now in the microwave part of the spectrum
It implies that the temperature after Big Bang was very high
If the temperature was exactly uniform across the sky, the density of the universe would be
exactly uniform
Gravity would not be able to form structures such as galaxy, stars and planets
Low temperature region has higher density and will collapse first to form galaxy
Hubble’s Law The recession velocity of a galaxy is directly 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑
proportional its distance from our galaxy
It implies that in the past the universe was smaller
By extrapolating backward far enough, everything in
the universe was at the same location: a point of
infinite density and temperature, The Big Bang
Hubble’s The gradient of the Hubble’s law graph
parameter The present value is 𝐻0 = 71 𝑘𝑚/𝑠/𝑀𝑝𝑐
Hubble’s constant not very accurate
Because the distances to the galaxies are
underestimated hence gradient is not as steep as in
Hubble’s graph
Dark matter Material that does not interact via the
electromagnetic force. Its gravity may be responsible
for explaining the rotation curves of galaxies and the
stability of the galaxy clusters
Cosmological The increase in wavelength of radiation from distant
redshift galaxies due to the expansion of the universe
Redshift The fractional increase in wavelength of light emitted 𝜆0 𝜆𝑒 𝑣
𝑧= =
by a source and detected by an observer due to the 𝜆𝑒 𝑐
relative motion between them
Light from almost all galaxy are redshifted 𝜆𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 >
𝜆𝑙𝑎𝑏
Due to Doppler effect galaxy are moving away from us
Hubble’s law so distance between galaxy is increasing
So, the universe is expanding
Big Bang The early universe was extremely hot and dense, the
Nucleosynthesis condition is suitable for thermonuclear fusion to occur
DARK MATTER

In order to account for the measured shape of the

graph there has to be more mass than can be
accounted for by the visible matter. This extra mass is
called dark matter
Dark matter does not emit electromagnetic radiation,
but it has gravitational effects
The dark matter affects the gravity of the universe,
which affect the rate at which the universe expands,
so it affects whether the universe is open, closed or
flat
Because the total density of the universe is uncertain,
the future of the universe is uncertain
TOPIC 11: NUCLEAR RADIATION

Name Definition Formulae

NUCLEAR DECAY
Nuclear decay Randomly: It is unpredictable which nucleus will
decay next and when it decays
Spontaneous: the rate of decay cannot be changed
by changing the external conditions (temperature,
pressure, etc.)
Radioactive Isotope has an unstable nucleus, decay and emit
isotopes radiation

238 234
Alpha decay Alpha particles: 92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝛼
 Strongly ionizing Alpha decay  Z by 2, A by 4
 Short range in air
 Stopped by paper
 Deflected by magnetic fields
14 14
Beta decay Beta particles are high-speed electron emitted by 6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅𝑒
the nucleus Beta decay  Z by 1
Beta particles 𝜈: neutrino
 Moderately ionizing 𝜈𝑒 : electron neutrino
 Range in air bout 1m
 Stopped by thin metal 𝜈̅𝑒 : anti-electron neutrino
 Deflected by magnetic fields (opposite
direction to alpha)
Gamma decay Gamma rays are high energy EM radiation (photon)
Gamma rays:
 Weakly ionizing
 Obey inverse square law in air
 Stopped by 1m concrete
 Not deflected by magnetic fields
HALF-LIFE
Half-life The time is taken for the number of radioactive 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
nuclei to reduce into half of its initial value
Decay constant The probability that a given nucleus will decay in one 𝑙𝑛2
𝜆=
second 𝑇1⁄
2
Activity The rate of decay of unstable nuclei 𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
Unit: Bq (Becquerel) 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Rate of The rate of production of C-14 (etc.) decrease
production The ratio was greater
Ratio used is from current time not from the past
 So, the time is underestimated
BACKGROUND RADIATION
Background Radioactive isotopes in the environment
radiation Before plotting activity graph the count rate
Sources of radiation: rocks, air, water, cosmic rays must be corrected for background,
Background radiation may affect cancer rate, otherwise 𝑇1⁄ will be overestimated
2
responsible for some mutations that drive evolution
END

Name Definition Formulae

BINDING ENERGY
Mass defect Free nucleons have more energy than when they’re trapped in ∆𝑚
the nucleus. = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠
2
According to Einstein, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 so if the energy of the nucleus −𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
increases the mass must increase
Since the mass of proton/neutron is constant, the mass of the
nucleus < total mass of proton/neutron in it.
Nuclear The energy needed to separate all nucleons in the nucleus 𝐵. 𝐸. = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
binding
energy
𝐹𝑒 − 56 is the most stable isotope
For A>56 the BE/nu decrease
So required net energy input to undergo fusion
So does not occur in massive stars

FISSION
Nuclear Split a large nucleus into small nuclei
fission Release energy because the BE/nucleons of the fragment
increase
 the energy is released in the reaction, provided that we do
not pass the peak
Number of neutrons always increase
Chain More than 1 neutron is produced in the reaction.
reaction Each neutron can induce further nuclei to fission
The reaction grows exponentially
Fissile Nucleus can be split by slow neutron
Rate of 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐸 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
energy
radiation
Rate of Most KE released is carried by the alpha particles which 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑚𝑐
temperature escapes, so it does not heat the metal. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
increase So, rate of T is likely to be overestimated
Radioactive Total activity is underestimated
waste All isotopes produced in the decay will be radioactive, so they
contribute to the total
FUSION
Nuclear Pros:
reactor  Lots of energy/kg of fuel
 No CO2 emission
Cons:
 Radioactive waste must be stored for thousands of
years
 Possibility of radiation escape during accident
 High cost of building reactors and decommissioning
Nuclear Joining 2 or more light nuclei into a heavier one and release
fusion energy
Sustained High energy/ temperature
fusion  The particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome
electrostatic repulsion
 They come close enough for fusion
High density/ pressure
 Ensure that the reaction rate is high
Fusion Pros:
reactors  Unlimited supply of fuel
 Little radioactive waste
Cons:
 Very expensive, requires extremely high T, P 
Container problems
 Strong magnetic field required
END
TOPIC 12: GRAVITATION

Name Definition Formulae

GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
A gravitational field is caused by mass & it affects mass
Gravitational fields Gravitational field lines show the direction that a positive mass will move in
that field. The field line spacing tells us the field strength
Gravitational field 𝐹
Force acting on unit mass in the field 𝑔=
strength 𝑚
ℎ
∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥
GPE Work done in moving a distance h in the field 𝑜
= 𝑚𝑔ℎ
 𝐺𝑃𝐸
Total energy 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 = −
2
Gravitational 𝐺𝑀
𝛷=−
potential 𝑟
Change in GPE per unit mass ∆𝛷 = 𝑔ℎ
∆𝛷
𝑔=−
Gravitational Potential
𝑑𝑥

Change in
gravitational potential

Distance R

The attractive gravitational force between two point mass 𝐺𝑀

𝑔=
Newton’s law of 𝑟2
Is directly proportional to the product of their mass
universal gravitation 𝐺𝑀𝑚
And inversely proportional to the square of distance between them 𝐹= 2
𝑟

2𝐺𝑀
Escape velocities The speed of the object so that it just reach ∞ 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅
KEPLER LAW OF PLANETARY ORBITS
The planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus of the
Kepler’s first law
ellipse
Kepler’s second law The line joining the planet to the sun sweep out equal area in equal times
𝑇2
If T is measured in year, d is measured in AU, 4𝜋 2
Kepler’s third law =( ) 𝑑3
𝑇 2 = 𝑑3 𝐺𝑀𝑆𝑢𝑛

SATELLITES
𝐺𝑀
Near Earth orbit 𝑣2 =
𝑅
Geosynchronous Above equator, 𝑇 = 24ℎ → 𝑑 = 4.2 × 107
BLACK HOLES
Radius of a black hole of mass M 2𝐺𝑀
Schwarzschild radius 𝑅𝑆 =
For Earth 𝑅𝑆 = 8.89 × 10−3 𝑚 𝑐2

END
TOPIC 13: OSCILLATION

Name Definition Formulae

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Occurs when there is a force always act toward 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Simple harmonic
equilibrium point and the force is directly
motion
proportional to the displacement from equilibrium
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝜔
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝜔2
𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥
Equation of 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡
simple harmonic 𝑎= → 2 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡
motion
This equation has 2 solutions that tell us how x
changes with time
𝑥0 is the maximum displacement from equilibrium
= amplitude

Angular 𝑘 𝑔
frequency 𝜔=√ =√
𝑚 𝑙
RESONANCE

Occur when the driving frequency is close to the

natural frequency
Maximum energy transferred from the driver to
the oscillator
Resonance
The amplitude of oscillation increases rapidly/ the
oscillation is amplified
The amount of amplification  as damping  (the
width of the curve )

DAMPING
A resistive force that opposes the natural motion
of an oscillator
Damping
Energy is dissipated from the oscillation
So, the amplitude of the oscillation decrease
With air resistance, T does not change 𝑠 = 𝑠0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
Light damping
The amplitude decreases exponentially
No oscillation
Heavy damping
The object returns to equilibrium point slowly
The most efficient way of removing energy from
Critical Damping an oscillator

END