(b) CELL STRUCTURE

2.2 & 2.3 Common Cell Structures & Functions

Nucleus:
- Membrane-bound organelle (surrounded by its own membrane).
- Contains genetic material in chromosomes.
- Controls the cell’s activities (how cells grow and work).
- Controls cell division.

Cytoplasm:
- Supports cell structures (holds organelles in place).
- Gel-like substance which fits the cell to facilitate chemical reactions.
- Contains enzymes which control these reactions.
- Contains water and many solutes.

Cell Membrane:
- Forms the outer surface of the cell.
- Holds the cell together.
- Controls substances entering and leaving the cell.

Cell Wall:
- Rigid structure made of cellulose.
- External and surrounds the cell membrane.
- Supports the cell and strengthens it.
- Protects and maintains the shape of the cell (prevents cell from bursting).

Mitochondria (singular – mitochondrion):

- Membrane-bound organelles found throughout the cytoplasm.
- Site of aerobic respiration, providing energy for the cell.
- Respiration transfers energy that the cell needs to work.

Chloroplasts:
- Organelles found in the cytoplasm.
- Site of photosynthesis, providing food for plants.
- Contains a green pigment / substance called chlorophyll.
- Chlorophyll absorbs light energy needed for the reaction to occur.

Ribosomes:
- Tiny structures / small organelles that can be free within the cytoplasm / attached to a
system of membranes inside the cell.
- Site of protein production in protein synthesis.

Vacuole:
- Large organelle / vesicles that take up a large part of the interior of plant cells.
- Contains a cell sap (a weak solution of sugars and salts).
- Used for storage of certain materials e.g. water and dissolved substances.
- Helps to support the shape of the cell.

2.4 Comparing Plant & Animal Cells

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

(b) CELL STRUCTURE

Multicellular organism
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Fixed shape No fixed shape
Large, central vacuole Little or no large, central vacuole
Cell Wall No cell wall
Contains chloroplasts to conduct Doesn’t contain chloroplasts (cannot
photosynthesis conduct photosynthesis)
Stores carbohydrates as starch Stores carbohydrates as glycogen.

2.5B Specialised Cells

Specialised Cells:
(b) CELL STRUCTURE

- Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order to
perform particular functions.
- Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: a process that involves the cell gaining
new structures within the cell in order for it to be suited to its function.
- Cells can either differentiate once early on or have the ability to differentiate their whole
lives (these are called stem cells).
- In animals, most cells only differentiate once, but in plants may cells retain the ability.

Importance of Cell Differentiation:

- All specialised cells and organs constructed from them have developed as a result of cell
differentiation.
- Undifferentiated cells (stem cells) receive signals which stimulate the expression of genes
for a cell to undergo change in metabolism and shape enabling them to carry out
specialised functions – forming a specialised cell.
- Therefore, this allows organisms to develop cells necessary to grow and develop as
specialised cells can undertake specific functions.
- For example, stem cells can differentiate into nerve cells to carry electrical impulses,
hence allowing muscle movement.

2.6B Stem Cells

- Many tissues in the human body contain a small number of undifferentiated cells.
- These are called stem cells and their function is to divide and produce new differentiated
cells within the tissue for growth and repair.
- Stem cells from embryos and bone marrow can be grown in a lab to produce clones
(genetically identical cells) and made to differentiate into specialised to use in medicine
or research.

Embryonic Stem Cells:

- Stem cells are found in great numbers in embryonic tissue as there is a large amount of
development and differentiation going on during foetal development.
- Scientists can clone this embryonic stem cells and direct them to differentiate into almost
any cell type.
(b) CELL STRUCTURE

Adult Stem Cells:

- Adults also have stem cells, but they’re only found in certain places, like the bone
marrow.
- Unlike embryonic stem cells, they can’t turn into any cell type at all, only certain ones,
such as blood cells.

Using Stem Cells in Medicine:

ADVANTAGES
- Medical benefits in therapeutic cloning to heal diseases and chronic illnesses.
- Potential in discovering treatments / cures for diseases such as Parkinson’s / cancer.
- Ability to test potential drugs and medicine without the use of animals or human
stimulation.
- Reduced risk of rejection as patient’s own cells can be used.
- Can be used to replace damaged cells, for example in people with type 1 diabetes and
those paralysed by spinal cord injuries or multiple sclerosis.
- Bone marrow transplants are an example of an adult stem cell transplant and can be used
to treat leukemia and other blood cell cancers.
- Whole organs could be grown for transplants without the need to find a donor.
- If organs are made from the patient’s own stem cells there would be no need for tissue
typing and no chance of organ rejection.

DISADVANTAGES
- Ethical issues surrounding the use of embryonic stem cells involving the destruction of
human embryos.
- Uncertainties regarding long-term effects.
- Mutations can occur in stem cells cultured for several generations.
- It is impossible to obtain embryonic stem cells from a patient as they have to be collected
before birth.
- Difficulties in finding suitable stem cell donors.