2.

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps):

 Operational amplifiers (Op-Amps) are essential analog electronic components used in a wide
range of applications.

 They are characterized by high gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance.

 Op-Amps have two input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) and one output terminal.

3. Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics:

Ideal Op-Amps have the following characteristics:

 Infinite open-loop voltage gain (A).

 Infinite input impedance.

 Zero output impedance.

 Infinite bandwidth.

 Zero offset voltage.

 Zero input bias current.

In practice, real Op-Amps have limitations, but these ideal characteristics are useful for theoretical
analysis.

4. Op-Amp Configurations:

There are several common Op-Amp configurations, including:

 Inverting Amplifier

 Non-Inverting Amplifier

 Summing Amplifier

 Difference Amplifier

 Integrator

 Differentiator

Each configuration has specific applications and uses.

5. Inverting Amplifiers:

 In an inverting amplifier, the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal (-).
  The gain of the inverting amplifier is determined by the ratio of two resistors, Rf (feedback
resistor) and Rin (input resistor).

 The gain (Av) is calculated as Av = -Rf / Rin.

6. Non-Inverting Amplifiers:

 In a non-inverting amplifier, the input signal is applied to the non-inverting terminal (+).

 The gain of the non-inverting amplifier is determined by the ratio of two resistors, Rf (feedback
resistor) and Rin (input resistor).

 The gain (Av) is calculated as Av = 1 + (Rf / Rin).

7. Summing Amplifiers:

 Summing amplifiers are used to add multiple input signals.

 The output voltage is the weighted sum of the input voltages.

 The gain for each input can be set by the corresponding resistor in the feedback network.

8. Difference Amplifiers:

 Difference amplifiers are used to find the difference between two input signals.

 They are often used in applications where you need to measure the voltage difference between
two points.

9. Applications of Op-Amps:

Op-Amps find applications in various electronic systems, including:

 Signal amplification

 Filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass)

 Voltage followers

 Instrumentation amplifiers

 Oscillators

 Voltage comparators