GENERAL CHEMISTRY

1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024

SOLUTION
SUPERSATURATED
● “like dissolves like” — substances with
similar types of intermolecular forces of ● A solution that comprises more than the
attraction dissolve in each other. maximum amount of solute that is
● polar solvents dissolve polar or ionic capable of being dissolved at a given
solutes, while non-polar solvents dissolve
set of temperature and pressure
nonpolar solutes.
conditions.
● A homogeneous mixture of one or more
solutes dissolved in a solvent.
○ SOLUTE - is the substance that SATURATED
dissolves in a solvent and is present in
smaller amount. ● A solution that contains the maximum
○ SOLVENT - is the substance in which amount of solute that is capable of
solute is dissolved and is present in a
being dissolved.
greatest amount.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS:
UNSATURATED
SOLUTE SOLVENT SOLUTION EXAMPLE
● A solution containing less than the
Gas Gas Gas Oxygen in maximum amount of solute that will
Nitrogen
dissolve under a given set of pressure
Gas Liquid Liquid Carbon and temperature conditions. In this
Dioxide in solution, more solute can be dissolved.
Water

Gas Solid Solid Hydrogen in

Palladium ENERGY OF SOLUTION FORMATION

Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in 1. Overcoming the intermolecular forces

water in the solvent to give room for the
solute (“expanding the solvent”).
Liquid Solid Solid Mercury in 2. Separating solute into its individual
Water
components (“expanding the solute”).
3. Allowing the solute and solvent to
Solid Liquid Liquid Salt in Water
interact to form a solution.
Solid Solid Solid Copper in Tin
(Bronze)
*underlined words are aqueous solution*

SOLUBILITY

● The ability of solute (solid, liquid, or gas)

to dissolve in a solvent and form a
solution.

○ Aqueous Solution - when a solute is

dissolved in water.
○ Non-aqueous Solution - when a solute is
dissolved in a solvent other than water.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024

b. Find
ENERGY OF SOLUTION FORMATION
- Molarity of the solution (M)
● Steps 1 and 2 require energy to
overcome the forces in expanding the MOLAR RATIOS ROAD MAP:
solvent and solute. (Endothermic)
● Step 3 involves the formation of new
solute-solvent interactions, which
usually releases energy. (Exothermic)
● Enthalpy - heat change

Convert grams to moles

Molar mass of KOH
EXOTHERMIC ENDOTHERMIC K = (1)(39)
O = (1)(16) 14.8g KOH ( ) = 0.26 m
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝑂𝐻
REACTIONS REACTIONS 56 𝑔 𝐾𝑂𝐻
H = (1)(1)__
A reaction that A reaction that the 56 g/mol
releases energy from system absorbs energy
the system in the form from its surroundings Convert mL to liters
of heat. in the form of heat. 750 mL ( 1000 𝑚𝐿 ) = 0.75 L
1 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟

Conclude the molarity

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS 0.26 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝑂𝐻
Molarity = 0.35 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙'𝑛 = 0.35 mol/L
● Percent by Mass,Volume, Mass-Volume
● Mole Fraction
● Molality SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
● Molarity
Determine the molar concentration of a solution
that contains 25g of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS in 250 mL of solution.
→ The amount of solute present in a given a. Given
amount of solvent is referred to as - Mass of KOH = 25 grams
concentration. - Vol of sol’n = 250 mL
b. Find
MOLARITY - Molarity of the solution (M)
→ It is the concentration of a solute Convert grams to moles
expressed as the number of the moles (n)
of solute per liter of solution. Molar mass of KOH
→ Formula: K = (1)(39)
25g KOH ( ) = 0.45 m
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑛) 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝑂𝐻
Molarity = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿) O = (1)(16) 56 𝑔 𝐾𝑂𝐻
H = (1)(1)__
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 56 g/mol

What is the molarity of a solution containing Convert mL to liters

250 mL ( 1000 𝑚𝐿 ) = 0.25 L
1 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
14.8 grams of KOH in 750 mL aqueous
solution?
Conclude the molarity
0.45 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝑂𝐻
a. Given Molarity = 0.35 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙'𝑛 = 1.8 mol/L
- Mass of KOH = 14.8 grams
- Vol of sol’n = 750 mL

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024

MOLALITY SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

→ Also called as molal concentration is a A solution is prepared by dissolving 32.0g of

measure of the concentration expressed as methanol (𝐶𝐻₃O𝐻) in 72.0 grams of water.
the number of moles of solute per Calculate the mole fraction of methanol and
kilogram of (mol/kg). water in the aqueous solution.
→ Formula:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑛)
Molality = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑘𝑔) a. Given
- mass of solute = 32.0 grams 𝐶𝐻₃O𝐻
- mass of solvent = 72.0 grams H₂O
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1 b. Find
- mole fractions of solute and solvent
What is the molality of a glucose solution
containing 9.5 grams of glucose (𝐶₆𝐻₁₂O₆) in Convert grams to moles
185g of water?
Molar mass of 𝐶𝐻₃O𝐻 and H₂O
a. Given C = (1)(12)
- mass of solute = 9.5 grams glucose
- mass of solvent = 185 grams water H = (4)(1) 32.0g 𝐶𝐻₃OH( 32 1𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙
)=1mol CH₃OH
b. Find O = (1)(16)__
- Molality of the glucose solution 32 g/mol

Convert grams to kilograms H = (2)(1)

O = (1)(16) 72.0g H₂O ( 18 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 )= 4 mol H₂O
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar mass of 𝐶₆𝐻₁₂O₆
C = (6)(12) 18 g/mol
H = (12)(1) 185g H₂O ( ) = 0.185 kg
1 𝑘𝑔
1000𝑔 𝐻₂𝑂
Conclude the mole fractions
O = (6)(16)__
Xₙ (solute)=
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝐻₃𝑂𝐻
180 g/mol (1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶𝐻₃𝑂𝐻+(4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻₂𝑂)
= 0.2
Convert grams to moles 𝑥𝐵(solvent)= 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻₂𝑂
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐶𝐻₃𝑂𝐻+(4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻₂𝑂)
= 0.8
750 𝐶₆𝐻₁₂O₆ ( ) = 0.05 m
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
180 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.2 + 0.8 = 1
Conclude the molality
0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶₆𝐻₁₂𝑂₆
Molality = 0.185 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐻₂𝑂 = 0.27 mol/kg

MOLE FRACTION

→ It is the ratio of the number of moles of

one component (solute or solvent) to the
total number of moles in a solution. It is
temperature and has NO UNITS.
→ Formulas:
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)
Solute (A) = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

Solvent (B) = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024
PERCENT BY MASS
→ The percent by mass of any component in
a solution is the mass of the component
divided by the total mass of the solution,
also called weight percent.
→ Formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
Percent by mass = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (100)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the percent by mass of a solute
containing 8.60 grams of NaCl in 95.0 grams of
solution?
a. Given
- mass of solute = 8.60 grams NaCl
- mass of solvent = 95.0 grams
b. Find
- percent by mass of solution (%m/m)
Conclude the percent by mass
8.60 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
PBM = 95.0 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
(100)= 9.05%
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
If 28.5 of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is
dissolved in enough water to make 185 g of
solution, what is the percent by mass of
Ca(OH)2 in the solution.
a. Given
- mass of solute = 28.5 grams Ca(OH)2
- mass of solvent = 185 grams
b. Find
- percent by mass of solution (%m/m)
Conclude the percent by mass
28.5 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
PBM = 185 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
(100)= 15.41%
PERCENT BY VOLUME
→ Is used when the substances that form the
solution are in states whose quantities can
be more accurately measured in terms of
volume such as when both solute and
solvent are in liquid or gaseous state.
→ Formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
Percent by volume = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (100%)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
If I make a solution by adding water to 75 mL of
ethanol (C2H5OH) until the total volume of the
solution is 375 mL, what’s the percent by
volume of ethanol in solution?
a. Given
- Volume of ethanol = 75 mL
- volume of solution= 375 mL
b. Find
- percent by mass of volume (%v/v)
Conclude the percent by volume
75 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
PBV = 375 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (100%)= 20%
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A wine contains 12% alcohol by volume.
Calculate the volume (in mL) of alcohol in 350
mL of wine.
a. Given
- percent of volume = 12%
- volume of solution= 350 mL
b. Find
- Volume of the component
c. Equation (cross multiplication)
(% 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙'𝑛)
100
Conclude the percent by volume
(12%)(350 𝑚𝐿)
PBV = 100
(100%)= 0.42%
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024

PARTS PER MILLION SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

→ It is the number of solute parts of solute How many grams of solid calcium hydroxide,
per one million .parts of solution and use Ca(OH)₂, are required to react with 350 mL of
to expressed very small concentration of 0.40 M HCl?
solutions.
a. Given
→ Formula:
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 - volume of HCl = 350 mL
Parts per million = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1,000,000) - molarity of HCl = 0.40 M
b. Find
- Mass of Ca(OH)₂ in grams
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Balance the reaction
4 mg of NaCl is dissolved in 8 kg of solution.
What is the concentration of NaCl in PPM?

a. Given
- mass of solute = 4 mg NaCl
- mass of sol’n= 8 kg
b. Find
- Parts Per Million of NaCl

Conclude the PPM Express the amount of a substance to moles

1𝑔
(4 mg) 1000 𝑚𝑔 = 0.004 g of NaCl
1000 𝑔
(8 kg) 1 𝑘𝑔
= 8000 g
0.004 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 6
PPM = 8000 𝑔
(10 ) = 0.5 PPM

Stoichiometry in Solution Reactions

● Solutions are also involved solving

problems using a balanced chemical Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles of
equation called stoichiometry substance yield by the reaction
● Study of the mass relationship between
substances in a chemical reaction

Convert moles of wanted substance by

4 GENERAL STEPS IN SOLVING:
desired units
● Balance the reaction.
● Express the amount of a given
substance to moles.
● Using mole ratio, calculate the moles of
substance yield by the reaction.
● Using mole ratio, calculate the moles of
substance yield by the reaction.

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
1ST QUARTER | 1ST SEMESTER | 2023 - 2024

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

How many liters of 0.53 M of HCl is required to

neutralize 78 g of sodium carbonate Na₂CO₃
a. Given
- Molarity of HCl = 0.53 M
- Mass of Na₂CO₃ = 78 g
b. Find
- Volume of HCl in liters

Balance the reaction

Express the amount of a substance to moles

Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles of

substance yield by the reaction

Convert moles of wanted substance by

desired units