SABP-Z-033 Flow Assurance

Best Practice
SABP-Z-033 2 January 2017

Flow Assurance
Document Responsibility: Flow Assurance Standards Committee
Contents
1 Scope ................................................................ 2
2 Conflict and Deviation ........................................ 2
3 References ........................................................ 2
4 Definitions and Abbreviations ............................ 4
5 Introduction ........................................................ 4
6 Flow Assurance Analysis ................................... 6
7 Flow Assurance Design Basis ........................... 7
8 Pipeline Hydraulic Analysis Design ................... 9
9 Flow Assurance and Modeling Strategy .......... 16
10 Pipeline Hydraulic Simulation .......................... 17
11 Fluid Properties and Phase Envelopes ............ 21
12 Drag Reducing Agents (DRA) .......................... 41
13 Contributor Authors.......................................... 47
Revision Summary .................................................. 47
Previous Issue: 1 January 2013 Next Planned Update: TBD

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Contact: Al-Rasheed, Mahmood Ayish (rashma0h) on phone +966-13-8809460
©Saudi Aramco 2017. All rights reserved.

Document Responsibility: Flow Assurance Standards Committee SABP-Z-033
Issue Date: 2 January 2017
Next Planned Update: TBD Flow Assurance
1 Scope
This Flow Assurance Best Practice provides general guidelines for basic engineering
requirements and recommended practice necessary to establish reliable and cost
effective design and operation for multiphase production and pipeline systems.
The major challenges issues covered in the Flow Assurance Best Practice are:
● Flow Assurance Analysis and Design Basis
● Flow Assurance Modeling Strategy
● Pipeline Simulation Design and Analysis
● Fluid Properties and Phase Envelopes
● Hydrate, Wax, Corrosion and Erosion
● Drag Reducing Agents (DRA)
2 Conflict and Deviation
This Best Practice was written to be consistent with Saudi Aramco and applicable
international standards. If there is a conflict between this Best Practice and other
standards or specifications, please contact the Flow Assurance Standards Committee
Chairman of UPED/P&CSD for resolution.
3 References
The following list shows the recommended flow assurance reference documents:
3.1 Saudi Aramco References
Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedures

SAEP-14 Project Proposal
SAEP-27 Pipelines/Piping Hydraulic Surge Analysis
SAEP-302 Instructions for Obtaining a Waiver of a Mandatory
Saudi Aramco Engineering Requirement
SAEP-303 Engineering Reviews of Project Proposal and Detail
Design Documentation
SAEP-354 High Integrity Protective Systems Design Requirements
SAEP-363 Pipeline Simulation Model Development and Support
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SAEP-501 Drag Reducing Agent (DRA) Chemicals
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards

SAES-A-014 Design of Hydrate Inhibition and Dehydration Systems
SAES-B-017 Fire Water System Design
SAES-B-058 Emergency Shutdown, Isolation, and Depressuring
SAES-B-060 Fire Protection for Piers, Wharves, and Sea Islands
SAES-B-064 Onshore and Nearshore Pipeline Safety
SAES-B-070 Fire and Safety Requirements for Bulk Plants
SAES-J-600 Pressure Relief Devices
SAES-J-601 Emergency Shutdown and Isolation Systems
SAES-J-605 Surge Relief Protection Systems
SAES-J-700 Control Valves
SAES-L-100 Applicable Codes and Standards for Pressure Piping
Systems
SAES-L-132 Material Selection of Piping Systems
SAES-L-310 Design of Plant Piping
SAES-L-410 Design of Pipelines
SAES-L-850 Design of Submarine and Risers
Saudi Aramco Best Practice

SABP-A-019 Pipeline Corrosion Control
Saudi Aramco Engineering Reports

SAER-5437 Guidelines for Conducting HAZOP Studies
SAER-6043 High Integrity Protection System (HIPS) Evaluation
Team Report
3.2 International Standards and Codes
ANSI/ASME Code “Process Piping” Chemical plant and petroleum refinery

pipeline for in-plant piping
ANSI/ASME B16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ANSI/ASME B31.1 Power Piping
ANSI/ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Pipeline or
In-Plant Piping
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ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems for

Cross-Country Liquid Pipelines
ANSI/ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
American Petroleum Institute

API RP 14E Erosion Criterion
API RP 14C ESD Valves Shutdown
API STD 521 Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems
American Water Works Association

AWWA M45 American Water Works Association, Fiberglass Pipe
Design
National Fire Protection Association

NFPA 24 Installation of Private Fire Services Mains and their
Appurtenances
NFPA 25 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water based
Fire Protection Systems
4 Definitions and Abbreviations
Dynamic Steady State: A term used to describe dynamic analysis when the bounding
conditions are either not changing or are changing in a repeated cyclic manner (pseudo-
steady state).
HIPS High Integrity Protection System
OPPS Over-Pressure Protection System
SS Steady State
DSS Dynamic Steady State
FWHP Flowing Well Head Pressure
5 Introduction
5.1 General
‘Flow Assurance’ guarantees that the pipeline can be operated as per specifications,
ensures the design is robust, and fits for purpose in terms of flow delivery.
Flow assurance analysis and design involve all aspects of chemical and
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mechanical disciplines, which are not all included in this Best Practice.
5.2 Flow Assurance Importance
Reservoir fluids are very complex. Reservoir oils consist of thousands of

hydrocarbon compounds. The produced fluids may exist as gas, liquid or both,
depending on the pressure and temperature at a given point in the flow system.
In a reservoir, the hydrocarbons may have extensive contact with water in the
formation and an equilibrium state is established. In the production process, the
equilibrium state is broken due to pressure and temperature changes.
This results in phase changes and a redistribution of components among the
phases. The reduced pressure results in released gas from live oil. Lowering the
temperature can result in possible solids depositions and blockages in the
production system. The temperature and pressure changes in a gas system can
result in liquid hydrocarbon and water dropout in the flowlines. These fluid
changes may reduce production and increase development costs.
Flow assurance therefore becomes one of the critical expertise to effectively
develop deepwater prospects.
The basic principles for flow assurance design are:

● Operate the production system outside the pressure/temperature region
where hydrates are stable and/or use hydrate inhibitors. Also, prevent
hydrate formation during the specified cool-down time by thermal
management (generally insulation design).
● Develop shutdown/startup procedures to: avoid hydrates, initiate flow
(gel/wax, gas lift availability, etc.), reduce slugging, and operate within the
capacities of topsides equipment.
● Prevent or reduce wax deposition in the wellbore and flowlines by thermal
management or using chemical inhibitors.
● Remove wax from the flowline by periodic scraping.
● Use inhibitors to prevent asphaltene deposition and solvents/scraping to
remove them.
● Understand water chemistry and manage scale through production
optimization and chemical treatment.
● Develop corrosion/erosion management and sand control procedures.
The major flow assurance analysis issues are:

● Fluid characterization under the full range of temperature and pressure.
● Steady state and transient flow modeling that provides the basis for
analyzing operation issues such as pipeline size, scraping, start-up,
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ramping-up, turn-down and shutdown.

● Hydrate, paraffin, and asphaltenes prediction, prevention, and remediation.
● Corrosion, erosion, sand, and scale control.
● Integration of flow assurance design with system design through active
interface with the reservoir, drilling/completion, pipeline and process
engineers.
6 Flow Assurance Analysis
The ultimate purpose of a flow assurance analysis is to develop a reliable, cost effective
production system and operating philosophy. The flow assurance design process
involves several major steps outlined below.
● Establish the design basis
● Reservoir and production conditions
● Fluid compositions and measured/predicted properties
● Flow line routing and ambient temperatures
● Facility equipment specifications
● Fluids modeling
● Tune the EOS (Equation of State) using reservoir fluid compositions and measured
properties.
● Assess fluid phase behaviors and predict physical properties. Besides the produced
fluids, this includes injected chemicals, injected water and gas, and export gas and oil.
● Conduct Thermo-hydraulic analysis
● Perform hydraulic analysis and pipeline sizing using preliminary insulation design
● Perform thermal analysis to specify insulation design
● Assess transient thermo-hydraulic behaviors: shutdown, startup and slugging
● Determine compatibility with facility requirements
● Establish operating strategies
● Assess system economics
● Comparison of options, and system optimization and integration
All steps will be considered collectively in practice and several of the steps will need to
be addressed simultaneously.
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The flow assurance design process starts early in the field development effort when the
type and reserves of a field are identified, and often before any development wells are
drilled. In general, design begins with development of a design basis, followed by
assessment of fluid behavior and analysis of thermohydraulics. During the
thermohydraulic design phase, the flow assurance engineer begins interfacing with other
design engineers, such as pipeline/flowline and facilities engineers. Typically, as parallel
efforts, the flow assurance engineer will develop operating strategies and determine
facility requirements together with subsea mechanical designers, facility engineers and
other engineers. The numerous interfaces necessitate effective project management as per
SAEP-27. A major consideration in the design process is the system economics and risks.
The design process will be iterative due to inevitable changes in the design basis,
interim results during the design, changes in system economics, and other changes.
7 Flow Assurance Design Basis
The first major effort in the design process is to establish a design basis. Flow assurance
engineers will be directly involved in determining and documenting the fluid
characteristics, PVT behaviors and the potentials for solids formation. For the other
aspects of the design basis, such as reservoir behavior, site characteristics, and facilities,
the flow assurance engineer will need to ensure that the data needed for the flow
assurance analysis are included in the design basis. Thus, the flow assurance engineers
will interface with those responsible for reservoir engineering and surface facilities.
These interfaces will continue throughout the project. It is important to note that the
design basis needs to consider the impact of poor or missing data.
This step in the design process assumes that fluid samples have been collected.
A substantial amount of laboratory work may be required to determine the
characteristics of the fluid samples. Standard PVT measurements should be performed
on the fluids, and then fluid characterizations should be developed for use in
thermohydraulic and other modeling (reservoir and process). The fluids should also be
tested for potential solids formation such as sulfur, wax, and asphaltenes.
If no data from samples are available, fluid properties must be inferred from analogous
fields or reservoirs. This may present considerable risk that must be taken into account
in the overall system design.
7.1 Thermohydraulic Design
The thermohydraulic analysis evaluates the lifecycle pressure and temperature

performance of the entire production system. This effort should also include
assessment of flow reduction potential due to solids formation or others in the
pipelines.
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At the beginning, basic design and operating principles should be set.

Such principles help guide the design process; however, these principles should
be continuously evaluated in light of system operability and economics where
practical, the preliminary design should keep the production system out of
hydrate formation region. For oil systems, this could mean insulation and for
gas system this might require hydrate inhibitors. It may also be necessary to
establish a lower limit on well production rate and/or to use insulated tubing to
prevent wax deposition in wellbore during normal operation. Wax may be
managed in the wellbore with chemical injection and in the flowline with
chemicals and scraping.
Most system design attributes can be set on the basis of steady state analysis,
such as the sizes of the production tubing, production flowlines, injection
flowlines, and transport pipelines. Criteria for line sizing include pressure
constraints, flow rates, and erosion limits. As part of the line sizing and
hydraulic assessment, changes in production rates, water cut, and gas to oil ratio
over the field life need to be evaluated. In most cases, subsea tiebacks include
dual production flowlines. This serves two purposes. It allows scraping for
wax, asphaltenes, sand, etc., deposition and it allows flow in only one line when
rates are reduced to reduce slugging. Artificial lift may also be considered to
increase flow; and flowline pressure may need to be re-evaluated over time.
Thermal modeling is typically combined with hydraulic modeling because

temperature has a significant influence on fluid physical properties. Operating
temperatures are analyzed as a function of insulation level and other parameters
initially via steady state analysis.
7.2 Transient Thermohydraulic Behavior Assessment
The operation of subsea production flowlines involves transient processes,

e.g., shutdowns, startups, and rate changes. It is during these transient
operations that issues like hydrate control and liquid handling become important
drivers for system design and operability.
Transient thermohydraulic modeling includes slugging, warm-up with restart,

cool down upon shutdown, and depressurization in wellbores and
flowlines/risers. In deepwater systems, cool down time to hydrate conditions
has typically driven the insulation level. Slugging normally impacts operating
procedures/limitations and topsides equipment design, and flowline size
selection can impact selection of flowline size.
7.3 Solids Formation/Deposition Assessment
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To assure design criteria are met, hydrate dissociation curves, and wax and
asphaltene formation envelopes are determined for the production fluids.
The operating temperatures and pressures are compared with these envelopes to
predict when and where solids may form. Solids control is responsible for many
of the features of subsea design and operation including insulation, chemical
injection, scraping facilities, and special operating procedures for shutdown.
Methods for remediation of deposited solids need to be developed.

These methods may require specific facilities such as downhole chemical
injection lines for prevention/remediation of wellbore deposits, and/or the
development of special procedures.
7.4 Operating Strategies
Operating strategies must be developed in accordance with the flow assurance

design and consistent with the system design. The adaptability should be assessed
to account for the uncertainties of fluid characteristics in the design basis.
7.5 Facility Requirements
The requirements, capabilities and control of the facilities are key parts of a
production system design. The key topside facilities are slug catchers,
separators, surge tanks, flare capacity, flare knockout drums, chemical storage
and pumping, scraping equipment, normal and emergency power, and the
control system. Instrumentation, controls, and facility capabilities have to be
completely integrated into the overall system design and operability.
7.6 System Economics
There are numerous design options, manufacturing considerations and

installation activities in a production system design that result in different
economics. The various options should be studied for their impact on system
economics and risk.
8 Pipeline Hydraulic Analysis Design
This section of the Flow Assurance Best Practice covers basic engineering requirements
and recommended practices for sizing multiphase production pipelines, water and gas
injection pipelines and transport pipelines.
8.1 Design Input
The production rates (oil, gas, and water) over the design life of the
development and the reservoir fluids properties should be obtained from the
reservoir engineering team. In different design phases, available data can differ.
The uncertainties in the data become less as more studies are performed by
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reservoir engineering and well completion teams. The design basis data used in
the design of a multiphase production flowline system are listed in Tables 1
and 2. Reservoir fluid analysis and characterization are required to determine
fluid properties at different pressures and temperatures, and to determine water
chemistry and compatibility. Input data should also include standards applied to
the mechanical design of a pipeline, MAOP, maximum and minimum
temperatures, etc.
The thermal conductivity of water-saturated concrete should be used for subsea

pipelines with concrete coating, and is much higher than that for dry concrete.
Table 1 - Design Basis Data for Sizing Flow Lines – 1/2

Item Comments
Field Layout, water depths/topography – Production
& Injection wells and flowlines
Seawater, soil and air temperature profiles
Seawater and air currents/velocities
Soil: thermal conductivity, heat capacity & density
and mechanical properties vs. depth
Reservoir depth, temperature and pressure
Produced, Injected and Exported Fluids:
properties/compositions:
Prod. wells: tubing size, geometry, etc. In lieu of well data, the flowing wellhead
Prod. wells: ambient temperature profile temperatures, pressures, and flowrates
Prod. wells: productivity index can be supplied.
Production profiles
SCSSV location in wellbore
Gas lift injection point, rate limits, etc.
Mechanical pressure boosting
May be determined as part of the FA
Hydrate dissociation curves
analysis.
Cooldown and no-touch times (hydrates)
Hydrate inhibitor and inhibitor injection points
Table 2 - Design Basis Data for Sizing Flow Lines – 2/2

Item Comments
WAT and Gel Point
Treating chemicals densities, viscosities, rates,
and injection points: scale, corrosion, paraffins,
asphaltenes, naphthenates and emulsions
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Item Comments
Sand level limit, sand level in produced fluids,
sand grain size distribution
Erosion criteria
Water Injection wells: rates
Water Injection wells: geometry, tubing size,
casings (unless FWHP is provided)
Water Injection wells: injectivity index, frac
pressure, etc., or FWHP at rate
Gas injection wells: rates
Gas injection wells: geometry, tubing size, casings
(unless FWHP is provided)
Gas injection wells: Injectivity Index or FWHP
Topsides: separator/slug catcher and flare: system
capacities and required arrival Temperature &
Pressure
Topsides: Injection pumps and compressors
Topsides ESD depressurization time & volumes
Export flowlines layout/topography and arrival
pressures
Remediation of flowline plugs
Operational philosophy/constraints
Additional Functional Requirements
8.2 Design Procedures
Thermal-hydraulic analysis will address the minimum pipe inside diameter (ID)
and insulation requirements (overall heat transfer coefficient). Sizing a pipeline
consists of three primary design criteria: pressure drop, maximum velocity
(erosion) and minimum velocity (slugging).
8.2.1 Pressure Drop Design Criterion
The maximum allowable pressure drop in a pipeline is determined by its

required outlet pressure and available inlet pressure. Some guidelines
for specific systems are shown below:
● For plant piping, rule-of-thumb values for pressure gradients are a
frictional gradient of 0.2-0.5 psi per 100 ft.
● For a gathering system, the ideal way to check for allowable pressure
drops is to simulate the whole system, from the reservoir to the
separator, over the design life of the field. This approach will account
for the changes in reservoir pressure, flow rate and compositions in the
gathering system over the field life. If rigorous simulations cannot be
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conducted on a gathering system, the allowable pressure drop is

estimated from the flowing wellhead pressure and a specified separator
pressure. A conservative rule of thumb is to take ⅓ of the difference
between the initial wellhead pressure and the separator pressure as the
allowable pressure drop in the pipeline.
● As a rule of thumb, allowable frictional pressure drop for long distance
gas-condensate pipelines is 10 – 20 psi per mile at design rates.
● The pressure in a pipeline should always be less than the MAOP.
In a multiphase pipeline pressure drop is not always the maximum at
the highest flow rate. If a pipeline contains significant “hills and
valleys”, it is possible that the highest pressure drop occurs at a lower
flow rate. This is due to increased liquid holdup at lower flow rates.
8.2.2 Erosional Velocity
A production stream is considered “solid-free” if the solid concentration

is less than 1 pound per thousand barrels of liquid in a liquid stream or
less than 0.1 pound per MMSCFD in a gas stream. Normally, any solids
concentrations above these levels (or the level specified by Engineering)
will involve shutting in the problem well until it can be recompleted.
Erosion is defined as the material loss by physical wear of liquid droplets

and/or solid particles. The maximum mixture velocity without noticeable
erosion is called erosion velocity. The mixture velocity in multiphase
pipelines should be kept below erosion velocity to prevent excessive
erosion loss of the pipe wall. For a solid-free production system,
API RP 14E (1991) Section 2.5 recommends the following formula:
C
Vmax 
m
where: Vmax = erosional mixture velocity, ft/sec
m = mixture density at flowing temperature and pressure, lb/ft3
(  g Vsg )  (  lVsl ) (  g Vsg )  (  lVsl )
m  
Vm Vsg  Vsl
 g = Gas Density, lb/ft
 l = Liquid Density, lb/ft
C = Constant
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 C=100 for continuous service and 125 for intermittent service

with a carbon steel pipeline. These are considered conservative
by industry.
 For solid-free liquids without corrosion or when corrosion is
controlled by using corrosion inhibitors or corrosion resistant
alloys, values of C between 150 and 200 may be used for
continuous service, and values up to 250 have been successfully
used for intermittent service. Different companies have assumed
different values for C. The client should be queried for the
acceptable value.
If the flow velocity is above the erosional velocity, erosion can increase
rapidly. For wells without sand production, C could be as high as 300
without significant erosion. For flowlines with significant amounts of
sand, there has been considerable erosion for lines operating below
C = 100. Unfortunately, no other proposed equation has gained
acceptance in the industry as an alternative to the API equation.
The velocity in a pipeline should be kept within a limited range.

The erosional velocity ratio should be less than one according to
API RP 14E. It is advised that a pipeline design should be checked at
off-design points because worst-case conditions for liquid holdup and
flow regime occur at turndown conditions.
A designer can change pipeline diameter and operating pressure to

mitigate flow pattern or flow characteristics. A designer should study
the slug characteristics, and facility capability to safely operate the
system. Today, many pipelines operate successfully in slug flow,
if slugging is not too severe.
8.2.3 Minimum Velocity
The minimum velocity for a pipeline should be considered in multiphase

pipeline design. If the pipe diameter is increased above the optimum
value, severe slugging may occur. This can upset the separator system.
Too low velocities may cause sand and water dropout in the pipeline.
Water will also accumulate at low spots in the pipeline. If there is an
appreciable amount of CO2 or H2S in the production stream, this water
may cause severe corrosion.
The minimum velocity depends on many variables including:

topography, pipeline diameter, gas-liquid ratio, and operating conditions
of the line. An approximate value for the minimum mixture velocity
would be 5-8 ft/sec (velocity in multiphase flow pipelines should be kept
above 10 ft/sec as indicated by API RP 14E to ensure proper operation).
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The actual minimum velocity can only be quantified by system modeling

with a multiphase simulator.
8.3 Thermal Requirements
The temperature of the flowing fluids has direct influence on its physical
properties. This impacts the deposition potentials of wax, asphaltenes, and
hydrates. Fluid temperature determines the phase equilibrium of liquids and
gas. Therefore, it affects pressure loss and liquid holdup in a pipeline. For the
flow of produced fluids from oil wells, higher temperature is generally better.
However, corrosion increases rapidly with temperature. To size a pipeline,
several insulation scenarios should be studied.
Table 3 provides typical ranges for overall heat transfer coefficients (OHTC or
U-value) for insulated pipelines. With the typical values, pressure drop can be
calculated with acceptable accuracy and the required U-value can be determined.
Table 3 - Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Insulated Pipes

Insulation U-Value [BTU/hr/ft2/F]
Well bores without insulation 1-2
Bare risers 50 - 200
Buried pipelines 1-3
Concrete coated non-buried pipelines 3-5
Non-buried pipelines without concrete 20 - 100
Foam insulation coated pipe 0.4 – 3.0
Pipe-in-Pipe with foam insulation 0.2 – 2.0
Pipe-in-Pipe with micro sphere insulation 0.1 – 1.0
8.4 Analysis Procedure
The purpose of hydraulic analysis is to obtain pressures, temperatures and

velocities along a pipeline. Due to the complexity of a multiphase system, a
multiphase simulator is required to perform such analysis.
A steady state multiphase simulator is enough for normal operation study

especially in conceptual or DBSP stage. Several typical insulation conditions
(bare pipe, coated or others) should be evaluated. In detail design, using a
transient simulator may be more efficient because transient issues need to be
also studied. The following shows the recommended procedure:
a. Select a pipeline diameter and a typical insulation U-value.
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b. Input detailed pipeline profile.

c. Input ambient temperature profile.
d. Input fluid composition or black oil system PVT data; input liquid rate, gas
rate, and water cut, typically for early life.
e. Select correlations for fluid property calculations.
f. Check the liquid viscosity.
g. Select the fluid flow correlation.
h. Perform the preliminary calculation.
i. Check pressure and temperature. If the pressure drop is too high, increase
the pipeline size; if the pressure drop is too small, select a smaller pipeline
size. Then, go to Step h.
j. Check erosional velocity ratios. If the erosional velocity ratio is greater
than one, select a larger diameter, then go to Step h.
k. Select another insulation U-value, if warranted, then go to Step h.
l. Check if slug flow is present. If yes, check riser slug severity number, slug
frequency, slug length and slug volume.
m. Report pressure and temperature profile along a pipeline, report scraping
liquid volume.
n. Usually 3-5 pipe diameters are used to generate a capacity versus pipe ID
curve and a minimum size is used for mechanical design considerations.
o. Repeat the above procedure with typical year productions from early, mid
and late life of the field, and check the applicability of each pipeline size.
p. Examine the flow patterns in the pipeline and the riser. If in the riser flow is
not slug flow, generally the pipe size should be the smallest size with which
the erosional velocity is less than 1.0 for a sand-free pipeline and the pressure
loss is less than the specified value. If the flow is stratified flow in the
pipeline and slug flow in the arrival riser, severe slugging may occur.
The pipe size should be selected after transient results are evaluated.
8.5 Recommended Practices
This section contains collective practices learned from past experiences.

 The Barnea (1987) modified Taitel-Duckler flow pattern map is
recommended for prediction of flow pattern.
 The Beggs-Brill pressure drop method incorporating the Beggs-Brill holdup
correlations is generally the most conservative among the commonly used
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methods. It normally over predicts pressure drop by 0-30%, and hence, it

provides a degree of conservation.
 The OLGA-S model is good for gas-condensate pipelines. For typical oil
systems, OLGA-S is reported to under-predict pressure drop.
 Due to the complexity of multiphase flow, uncertainties associated with
pressure drop calculations are significantly greater than those in single-phase
flow, and errors in excess of ±20% must be anticipated.
 A sensitivity analysis on the pressure drop from different multiphase
correlations is desirable to have more confidence in the results.
 Uncertainties in pressures and flow rate calculations from the hydraulic
simulation are reported.
9 Flow Assurance and Modeling Strategy
‘Flow Assurance’ guarantees that the pipeline can be operated as per specifications,
ensures the design is robust, and fits for purpose in terms of flow delivery.
At steady state flow assurance is most likely to be concerned with the following aspects:
● When flowing at the intended rates, the required inlet pressure is less than the
available wellhead pressure (production lines). Alternatively, the available outlet
pressure is greater than required wellhead delivery pressure (gas lift, water injection,
chemical injection lines).
● Fluid arrival temperature is higher than the wax appearance temperature, or
alternatively continuous wax inhibition will be needed.
● Fluid arrival temperature is higher than the hydrate temperature, or alternatively
continuous hydrate inhibition will be needed.
● Flow pattern (multiphase lines) or transition from single to two-phase flow.
Offset from two-phase region (dense phase lines).
● Corrosion: water condensation and separation. Required degree of reduction in
corrosion rate by inhibitor, likelihood of distributing a corrosion inhibitor (by slugs
or droplets).
Analysis is likely to include either maximum and minimum flow rates or a proposed
through-life profile (e.g., year-on-year). Turndown operation should also be considered
(e.g., 25% or 50% of design rate).
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Sensitivities to test the robustness of the design decision to variations in the input
parameters may also be completed (e.g., to inlet temperature, water cut, fluid
composition/Gas Oil Ratio, or to ambient conditions).
During Dynamic Steady State Analysis, flow assurance is most likely to be concerned
with flow stability, slug size or surge volume and mitigation of slugs which cannot be
accommodated within the process.
Using dynamic analysis, flow assurance can determine the extent to which wax, hydrate
and slug/liquid surge aspects are generated, and demonstrate that the operating
procedures are robust, and that any possible upset in the process can avoided or
managed within the acceptable process range.
10 Pipeline Hydraulic Simulation
The purpose of completing pipeline simulation analysis is to provide information which

allows well-informed design decisions to be taken. These decisions may or may not be
taken by the originator of the pipeline simulation analysis, and ultimately may be
financially driven decisions (i.e., taken outside of the design team). However, the
pipeline simulation analysis proves much of the information that is a key in qualifying
options as being viable, and in understanding any unequal balance of risk between them.
Although all aspects need to be agreed upon across the design team, the following are
primarily decided by the pipeline simulation analysis:
Table 4
Pipeline Analysis Controlling
Aspect Most Relevant Issues
Variable Constraint
Size Internal Diameter Available pressure Construction/Installation
drop vs. intended method.
Type Rigid or Flexible, production rate
Roughness Likely cost
Degree of Wall make-up, Minimum and Avoidance of continuous
insulation Burial maximum fluid chemical treatment for wax,
arrival temperatures hydrates, emulsions.
Construction method (pipe-in-

pipe, bundle, conventional
insulated, buried).
The following aspects are outputs from the pipeline analysis which are likely to be used
by other disciplines:
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Table 5
Most Relevant Pipeline Type of Pipeline
Discipline Aspect
Analysis Output Analysis
Mechanical Upheaval buckling Temperature profile Steady state
design
On-bottom stability Contents density Steady state
Dynamic Steady
Fatigue loading Slugging cycles
State
Reception Steady state
Steady state Arrival temperature,
process engineer Dynamic Steady
operations Flow stability
State
Non steady state Liquid surge (on rate change,
Dynamic
operations start-up).
Reservoir Deliverability Required vs. available pipeline Steady state
Engineering, inlet pressure
Wells design &
Production Available gas lift, or water
optimization injection pressure
Operations Non steady state Shut-in/cooldown, intervention Dynamic
operations time, start-up.
Scraping
Commissioning (dewatering).
Materials and Corrosion Temperature, pressure, flow Steady state
corrosion pattern, velocities, droplets.
Erosion API RP 14E or quantitative Steady state

erosion model
Maximum wall temperatures Steady State
Material
specification
Minimum wall temperature Dynamic
Safety System limits Maximum possible flow rate Steady state or
(specifically valve fails to fully dynamic
open).
Pressure build-up time on Dynamic

inadvertent valve closure.
Within constraints such as flare
Pipeline planned
limit, liquid handling, minimum Dynamic
depressurization
pipeline wall temperatures
Maximum release rates. Total
Pipeline rupture released inventory of oil and Dynamic
gas phases.
Controls (Valves) Minimum and
Specifically HIPPS, OPPS and
maximum valve Dynamic
surge (water hammer) cases.
closure times
Measurement Maximum and minimum
Steady State and
Flow metering temperature at the location of
Dynamic
the meter
Page 18 of 47
10.1 Pipeline Analysis Inputs
A pipeline model comprises the following elements:

● Route length, including elevation profile and risers
● Fluid properties, probably derived from a composition, possibly including
water
● Pipeline description: diameter, roughness, etc.
● Thermal description: U-value or wall construction/insulation, burial, external
ambient conditions
● Boundary condition
● Relevant equipment and controllers
10.2 Steady State
To complete a steady state analysis, the boundary conditions are the inlet
temperature and any pair of:
● Flow rate and outlet pressure: Calculate inlet pressure
● Flow rate and inlet pressure: Calculate outlet pressure
● Inlet Pressure and Outlet Pressure: Calculate flow rate
At steady state outputs include temperature, pressure, phase properties and phase
flow rates/velocities as they vary with pipe length. For multiphase pipelines,
flow pattern may be indicated, and where slug flow is suspected an indication of
expected severity is given by multiphase simulation software. Constraints
which are not directly applied may be implemented using parametric studies to
span a relevant range (e.g., pipe diameter, U-value).
10.3 Dynamic Steady State
A dynamic steady state analysis can be completed by defining the time period
over which to conduct the simulation (which must be long enough to
demonstrate that dynamic steady state conditions have been attained), and by
specifying the inlet temperature and either:
● Flow rate and outlet pressure: Calculate inlet pressure
● Inlet Pressure and Outlet Pressure: Calculate flow rate
At dynamic steady state the main output is likely to be the phase flow rates at
the outlet (or other fixed locations of interest) as a function of time. In the case
that the inlet pressure was not specified as a boundary condition, then this will
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be calculated, showing cyclic variation with time. Data capture frequency must
also be defined for the variables of interest.
Constraints may be implemented using controllers acting on process equipment

such as valves, heaters. It is important to recognize that profiles of variables
with length along the pipeline are snapshots at an instant in time and
interpretation can then be difficult.
10.4 Dynamics
A dynamic analysis can be completed by specifying a starting condition (e.g., the

steady state), the duration of the simulation, and defining any events which act on
the pipeline, such as valve positions, controller set-points, inlet temperature, flow
rate changes, scraper launch, and boundary pressure. It should also be noted that
where thermal transients are to be modeled, the pipe wall construction (and burial
where relevant) must be specified in place of an overall heat transfer coefficient
(U-value).
Certain aspects of dynamic simulation can be time-step dependent and the results
may change depending on the time step chosen. For key design decisions, it may
be important to demonstrate that the results are insensitive to time-step.
10.5 Applying Analysis to Pipelines
Pipeline analysis must be tailored to be relevant to the type of pipeline.
Steady State (SS) analysis is likely to be applied to all pipeline design.
Dynamic Steady State (DSS) analysis is primarily used to assess flow stability
of multiphase lines. Dynamic Steady State analysis is less likely to be applied to
single phase lines but is relevant if the boundary conditions are changing
(e.g., day-night) or throughput is changing on a cyclic basis (e.g., packing and
un-packing gas pipelines.
Dynamic analysis is applicable whenever there is a need to quantify a threat

which increases during operating events. A large number of events can be
defined, but a range of routine foreseeable events are likely to include:
● Shut-in: Pressure will equalize within the pipeline subject to variation in static
head, and, if not isolated at both ends, the pipeline pressure will equalize with
the open boundary. Rapid pressurization (of gas lines) may lead initially to
the fluid temperature rising. Rapid shut-in of water lines may lead to water
hammer. The temperature of the contents will tend to approach ambient
conditions as time progresses, and liquids may condense from the gas.
Multiphase pipelines will experience liquid drainage to low points (possibly
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one end). After some time, conditions may approach those at which wax or
hydrates starts to form. Operational intervention may be needed to mitigate
this threat through depressurization or displacement. If the shut-in was
planned, the pipeline contents may have been pre-conditioned (e.g., hydrate
inhibitor) to mitigate such threats for the long-term.
● Restart: Resumption of flow causes the pressure to build in the pipeline and
any liquid to be mobilized through the pipeline to the outlet, possibly as
intact bodies of liquid (e.g., 5 km slug). For offshore pipelines the outlet is
physically located some height above the main length of the pipeline, for
example a vertical riser. If the liquid body is sufficient to fill the riser, then
the pressure in the pipeline will initially rise to equal the boundary pressure
plus the hydrostatic head of the riser. Once this is achieved, liquid will flow
out of the top of the riser, gas will follow, and the steady state flowing
condition can be re-established. Fluid temperature is slowest to be re-
established at the steady state condition.
● Rate change: Typically, rate reduction (turndown) leads to an increase in
liquid inventory in multiphase lines. Rate increase then expels the excess
liquid inventory, possibly as a slug.
● Scraping: Where facilities exist, scrapers may be sent through the pipeline
for cleaning or inspection purposes. Scraping may be undertaken routinely
to limit the accumulation of liquids or solids in the pipeline and thereby
prevent the pipeline operating at an undesirable steady state. Velocity limits
and liquid surge handling constraints may be relevant to the scraping
operation and compliance with these can be verified by pipeline analysis.
● Depressurization/blow down/rupture: The main difference between these
scenarios is the degree to which the outflow is controlled or regulated within
plant or pipeline constraints. Dense phase lines may enter the two-phase
hydrocarbon region. During slow depressurization of offshore pipelines, the
velocity may be insufficient to drag liquid up the riser. The outflow may
therefore be gas phase only, resulting in the remaining contents becoming
rich in heavier components. For dense phase pipelines re-combination of the
remaining (heavy) liquid composition with fresh feed on re-pressurization
may be an important factor.
11 Fluid Properties and Phase Envelopes
Hydrocarbon fluids are mixtures of components with a wide range of molecular

weights, from methane, CO2 and Nitrogen, to long chain molecules (C80 and above).
The state of these fluids depends on the prevailing conditions of pressure and
temperature. Typical phase envelopes are shown in Figure 1 for a composition which
might be referred to as oil and for a gas used for well lifting.
Page 21 of 47
Fluid phase envelopes
150
Dense phase Dense Dense Dense
Condensate phase phase phase
(Gas) (Oil) (Gas)
Pressure, bara
100
50
0
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
o
Temperature, C
Lift Gas Oil reservoir
Critical Point (gas) Critical Point (oil)
Figure 1 - Phase Envelopes for Two Compositions (Oil and Lift-Gas)
Outside of the two-phase region a single phase is present. At low pressures the
distinction between oil or gas seems clear and is understood. At pressures above the
cricondenbar, the fluid is dense phase but may still be referred to as gas or oil, for ease
of communication. Somewhat arbitrarily, the critical point temperature may be used as
a dividing line for referring to ‘gas’ or ‘oil’ when in the dense phase region.
Pipeline Simulation Analysis uses the fluid properties and phase fraction as they vary
with operating conditions of pressure and temperature. The fluid behavior can be
generate by thermodynamic software (PVT packages) on the basis of an equation of
state (e.g., Peng-Robinson or SRK) and a compositional description, often lumping
heavier components into one (or more) un-characterized group known as a pseudo-
component for which artificial properties are given.
Clearly, the accuracy of the fluid model and the pipeline analysis depends to some
extent on the proportion which has been left in the pseudo-components and the extent to
which the fluid model has been tuned against laboratory data for measured properties
such as the gas oil ratio, bubble point, or oil viscosity.
For pipeline simulation analysis, the fluid properties are often defined across a grid of
temperature and pressure points by the PVT package and remain constant throughout
the pipeline simulation. Where the composition changes with time (or with position at
steady state), the composition can be taken within the pipeline analysis, and fluid
(phase) properties then depend on pressure, temperature and local composition as a
function of time/position. The main impact of this is computational efficiency.
Page 22 of 47
11.1 Multiphase Flow in the Oil Industry
11.1.1 Definition of Multiphase Flow
In fluid mechanics, multiphase flow is simultaneous flow of “Materials

with different states or phases” (i.e., gas, liquid or solid). Materials with
different chemical properties but in the same state or phase (i.e., liquid-
liquid systems such as oil droplets in water).
Each of the phases is considered to have a separately defined volume

fraction (the sum of which is one) and velocity field. Conservation
equations for the flow of each species (perhaps with terms for
interchange between the phases) can then be defined.
11.1.2 Oil Reservoirs and Effect Initial Pressure
If a reservoir is discovered with an existing gas cap, this means that

the initial reservoir pressure is below the reservoir fluids bubble
point pressure and the gas had moved upwards to form the gas cap.
These types of reservoirs are called saturated oil reservoirs.
If the reservoir is discovered only with oil and no gas cap, it means that
the reservoir pressure is at or above the fluids bubble point pressure.
However, once the reservoir starts producing fluids, the pressure
decreases and the gas contained in the fluids comes out of solution, some
of the gas moves towards the producing oil (produced gas) and some of
the gas moves upward to form a gas cap. This type of reservoir is termed
an under-saturated reservoir.
In either case, the high ambient pressure that is initially present in the
reservoir leads to some or all of the gas being dissolved in the oil phase,
and this gas may start to be released when the pressure is reduced as the
fluids moves towards the surface via a well.
Some oil-producing wells are gas lifted to help the oil rise to the surface.
This can improve production rates and prolong the wells economical
lifespan. The well may also produce water and solids particles (sands),
the well elevation profile may have horizontal or downhill sections, fluid
may flow in at multiple locations, and the fluid composition may change
over time.
To make accurate flow predictions, the prediction of the boiling and the
release of gas dissolved in the oil as the pressure reduces in critical.
Processing facilities are often not located by the wellhead, so the fluid
are transported in gathering networks and pipelines. The pressures and
Page 23 of 47
temperatures in these networks can lead to deposits of hydrates, waxes,

or other solids, and corrosion or slugging can also cause problems.
Multiphase flow in pipelines can occur in pipelines transporting what

was intended to be dry gas, and this can lead to similar problems. In less
severe cases it results in altered pipe friction or reduced gas quality
delivered to the customer, but the flow can also become truly multi-
phase. In oil pipelines, the presence of gas bubbles, water, or particles
can also make the flow multiphase.
11.1.3 Flow Regimes in Horizontal Pipes
Multiphase flow can take different forms and in the case of gas-liquid
flow, the gas may appear as tiny amounts of small bubbles in the liquid.
That kind of flow occurs when there is relatively little gas compared to
liquid, at the same time as the liquid flows fast enough to create
sufficient turbulence to mix the gas into the liquid faster than the gas can
rise to the top of the pipe.
Another extreme occurs if tiny amounts of liquid droplets are carried by

the gas. In that case part of the liquid becomes deposited on the pipe
surface and moves as a film in much the same way water moves on the
windscreen of a car driving in the rain. Since pressures can be high in
pipelines, the gas density is much higher that what is experience for air,
and moderate gas velocities can have great impact. This droplet flow
can be difficult to model accurately. In many cases the resulting
accuracy is acceptable since this kind of flow does not create the same
sorts of problems as slugging. However, it can lead less accurate
prediction of deposition or corrosion, which use results from the flow
models as their input.
Figure 2 illustrate the flow regimes that can occur in horizontal

two-phase gas-liquid flow. Stratified flow has the strongest tendency to
occur in downhill or horizontal flow with relatively small gas and liquid
flow rates. If the gas velocity is increased, waves start to form, and these
waves can get high enough to reach the top of the pipe. When that
happens, the gas is throttled or even blocked for a moment so that the
flow becomes discontinuous, thus leading to the formation of slugs or
elongated bubbles. Slugs are generally unwanted because they can
create significant pressure fluctuations, and they can also lead to gas and
liquid arriving at the processing facilities unevenly, causing tanks to
flood. Since gases have lower density and therefore lower heat capacity
than liquids, gases cool faster, so the temperature reduction during
Page 24 of 47
periods of high gas content can more easily cause hydrates to form.
The increased intermittent liquid velocity can also accelerate corrosion.
i) Dispersed Bubble Flow
ii) Annular Flow
iii) Elongated Bubble Flow
iv) Hydrodynamic Slug Flow
v) Stratified Flow
vi) Stratified Wavy Flow

Figure 2 - Horizontal Slug Flow Regime
11.1.4 Slugging
Slugs forming in horizontal pipes as shown in Figure 3 are called

hydrodynamic slugs, and tend to be relatively short, typically less than
500 pipe diameters.
Page 25 of 47
Another sort of slugs, referred to as terrain induced slugs, form when the
pipes elevation profile creates a dip. Terrain generated slugs can have
periods of several hours, and can originate in both wells and pipelines.
Figure 3 - Terrain Induced Slugging
Liquid has a tendency to flow towards the low point and block the gas.
The gas pressure builds until the gas reaches the low point and begins to
escape into the liquid-filled uphill section. Once that occurs, the liquid
column carried by the gas gets shorter and shorter, and it becomes easier
for the pressure to push it further upwards. As a result, both the liquid
and the gas accelerate out of the pipe.
Neither the downhill nor the uphill parts need to be as steep. It can occur
at any low point in a pipeline, it does not have to be near the outlet.
Production risers (from seabed to production platform process facilities)
may create these sorts of slugs if the seabed in front of the riser slopes
downwards, and some sorts of risers are shaped like a J or U in order to
allow floater movement. When the riser causes this type slugging, it is
often referred to as severe slugging or riser induced slugging.
The effect of slugging can be reduced by actively controlling the choke

at the riser outlet. Similar techniques have in some cases succeeded in
countering the adverse effect of well slugs by actively controlling the
wellhead choke.
Page 26 of 47
11.1.5 Operational Slugging
In multiphase flow in horizontal and upwardly inclined pipe, the gas

usually travels faster than the liquid due to lower density and lower
viscosity. This is called slippage. Multiphase flow correlations predict
the ‘slip-ratio’ which depends on many factors such as fluid properties,
pipe diameter and flow regime.
Since the gas usually travels faster than the liquid, it will slip past the
liquid. In order for the volume flowrate to remain constant, the area of
the pipe occupied by the gas must shrink. This gives rise to a higher
liquid volume fraction than if the gas traveled at the same velocity,
resulting in ‘liquid holdup,’ as shown in Figure 4.
During a scrapping operation, an object of diameter slightly less than that

of the pipeline is sent through the line to push out liquids and debris.
As a pipeline is scrapped, a volume of liquid builds up ahead of the
scrapper and is expelled into the slug catcher as the scrapper approaches
the receiver.
Figure 4 - Effect of Slippage on Liquid Hold-Up
During a scrapping operation, an object of diameter slightly less than that

of the pipeline is sent through the line to push out liquids and debris, as
shown in Figure 5. As a pipeline is scrapped, a volume of liquid builds
up ahead of the scrapper and is expelled into the slug catcher as the
scrapper approaches the receiver.
Figure 5 - Effect of Scrapping on Liquid Hold-up
Page 27 of 47
During a ramp-up of flow, the overall liquid holdup typically decreases

because the gas can more efficiently sweep out the liquid phase. When a
rate increase occurs, the liquid volume in the pipeline is expelled
resulting in a liquid surge arriving in the slug catcher.
Figure 6 - Effect of Ramp-up On Liquid Content
11.1.6 Flow Regimes in Vertical Pipes
The flow regimes occurring in vertical flow are similar to those in

horizontal pipelines, but one difference being that the there is no lower
side of the pipe which the densest fluid prefers. Hence, stratified flow is
not possible in vertical pipelines.
Figure 7 - Gas-liquid Flow Regimes in Vertical Pipes
Page 28 of 47
Most of experiment work which has been published in the field of flow
regime has only considered horizontal or vertical pipes. However,
pipelines and not truly flat, and tend to following the inclines in the
terrain where they are laid, and may have other inclinations, so the
complexity on flow regime is much greater than discussed in this
document.
11.1.7 Flow Regime Maps
Analyzing pipelines of any inclination, operating in multiphase flow

must include a determination flow regime that the pipeline. Without
understanding the flow regime, the pipeline hydraulics cannot be fully
understood. Flow regime maps of the sort shown in Figure 8 give an
insight to the results of the analysis.
Along the horizontal axis the superficial gas velocity has been plotted.
Along the vertical axis is superficial liquid velocity.
Figure 8 - Example of Steady-State Flow Regime Map for a Horizontal Pipe
The plots shows that for very low superficial gas and liquid velocities,
the flow is stratified. As the velocities approach zero, the pipeline will
act as a long, horizontal tank with liquid at the bottom and gas on top.
Increasing the gas velocity, waves start forming on the liquid surface.
Page 29 of 47
Due to the friction between gas and liquid, increasing the gas flow will
also affect the liquid by dragging it faster towards the outlet and thereby
reducing the liquid level. If we continue to increase the gas flow further,
the gas turbulence intensifies until it rips liquid from the liquid surface so
droplets become entrained in the gas stream , while the previously
horizontal surface bends around the inside of the pipe until it covers the
whole circumference with a liquid film. The droplets are carried by the
gas until they occasionally hit the pipe wall and are deposited back into
the liquid film on the wall.
If the liquid flow is very high, the turbulence will be strong, and any gas
tends to be mixed into the liquid as fine bubbles. For somewhat lower
liquid flows, the bubbles float towards the top-side of the pipe and cluster.
The appropriate mix of gas and liquid can then form Taylor bubbles,
which is the applied to the large gas bubbles separating liquid slugs.
If the gas flow is constantly kept high enough, slugs will not form
because the gas transports the liquid out so rapidly the liquid fraction
stays low throughout the entire pipe. It is sometimes possible to take
advantage of this and create operational envelopes that define how a
pipeline should be operated, typically defining the minimum gas rate for
slug-free flow.
Flow regime maps can be developed for vertical pipes and pipes with
upward or downward inclinations. However, to date it is not possible to
development general maps valid for all diameters, inclinations and fluid
properties. Therefore, a map valid for one particular situation (one point
in one pipeline with one set of fluid data) cannot be applied to another
situation.
11.1.8 Types of Three-Phase and Four-Phase Flow
Three phase flow is most often encountered as a mixture of gas, oil, and
water. The presence of sand or other particles can result in four-phase
flow. Although sand has the potential to build up and affect the flow or
even block it, the most common situation if sand is present is that the
amounts are tiny. If velocities are high enough, the sand is quickly
transported out of the system. Instead, it is only taken into account in
considerations to do with erosion or to establish minimum flow limits to
avoid sand buildup.
However, creating flow regime illustrations similar to those for gas-

liquid flow in Figure 7, is very difficult for three-phase flow and ends up
with very complex illustrations of limited validity.
Page 30 of 47
11.2 Wax
At low temperatures heavier n-paraffins solidify to form a wax phase. This is a

phase in exactly the same way as liquid is a phase. It is the role of pipeline
analysis to either avoid conditions which allow wax to form (usually by
applying sufficient insulation) or to quantify the rate or wax formation / build-up
on the pipe walls. Wax removal by scraping or heating may also be relevant.
Wax deposition and wax gelation are two potentially catastrophic issues in crude
oil and gas/condensate systems that can render a pipeline unusable.
While typically confined to oils, some gas condensates can show waxing and
gelling formation.
11.2.1 Deposition Mechanics
Wax components can precipitate from petroleum fluids when the

conditions of the fluids are changed so that the solubility of the waxes is
reduced. During prolonged pipeline operation at wax conditions, the
wax may deposit in the pipeline and reduce the pipeline capacity due to a
reduction in internal diameter.
Wax precipitation does not necessarily lead to deposition because

individual wax crystals tend to disperse in the fluid instead of depositing
on a surface. However, if the number of wax crystals becomes large
enough or if other solids, (e.g., asphaltenes, sands or corrosion products)
are present, the crystals may agglomerate into larger particles.
These larger particles then may separate out of the fluid and form solid
deposits.
The following plot shows a typical wax precipitation envelope on a

pressure temperature diagram. The solid/liquid-phase boundary is nearly
vertical for waxes, illustrating wax precipitation’s strong dependence on
temperature and weak dependence on pressure. Hence, reducing
temperature is the most common cause of wax deposition because wax
solubility in hydrocarbon fluids decreases as the temperature is lowered.
Page 31 of 47
Figure 9 - Sample Phase Envelop with Wax
Pressure changes usually have a very small effect on wax precipitation

temperatures and amounts. However, changes in the original
equilibrium composition of the fluids can result in a loss of wax
solubility. A fairly consistent trend is that the lightest components in a
crude oil act as good solvents for waxes. Liberation of solution gas from
a crude oil as pressure decreases below the bubble point of the fluid has
been shown to increase the cloud-point temperature of the oil.
11.2.2 Wax Appearance Temperature/Cloud Point
When an oil temperature is lowered to the wax appearance temperature

(WAT), the wax molecules form clusters of aligned chains. Once this
reaches a critical size, they become stable and lead to growth of the
crystal. Formation of these clusters causes the fluid to take on a cloudy
appearance, hence the name cloud point. This also is referred to as the
wax crystallization temperature or wax appearance point. Determination
of a WAT significantly higher than the temperatures expected to be
encountered during production indicates the potential for wax deposition
problems.
Page 32 of 47
11.2.3 Wax Dissolution Temperature
The wax dissolution temperature (WDT) is defined as the temperature at

which all precipitated wax has been dissolved on heating the oil. This can
be significantly higher than the oil WAT, and 68°F (20°C) differences
between WDT and WAT is not uncommon.
11.2.4 Effect of Sampling on Prediction
Measurements of the temperature at which wax precipitation occurs and

the amount of wax precipitated are performed with both stabilized oils
and live reservoir fluids. However, it should be noted that for reservoir
fluids, stabilized oil tests tend to be conservative than live oil tests as the
light end hydrocarbons will have evaporated in the stabilized sample.
Hence, stabilized oil tests tend to lead to conservative design conditions.
There can be an increase of 50°F (10°C) between the prediction of WAT
between live and stabilized oil samples.
11.2.5 Laboratory Wax Deposition Rate Determination
There are a number of experimental measurements performed on

petroleum fluids to define their tendency to precipitate wax. However,
determining the deposition rate is a complex procedure. The goal of
each method is to determine the deposition rate to the pipe walls.
Because wax deposition rate is governed by the temperature difference
between the oil and its surroundings, there must be a positive heat flux
across the pipe. If the fluid temperature reaches ambient conditions, no
wax deposition will occur.
11.2.6 Chemical Injection Effects on Wax Deposition
Wax deposition rates can be reduced by continuously injecting a paraffin

inhibitor. However, to be effective, the inhibitor should be injected at a
temperature of 50°F (10°C) above the fluid WAT. In most fields, this
would require that the wax inhibitor be injected at the wellhead
(downstream of the production choke). However, there are cases where
there has been threat of wax deposition in the well, which may require
deep set injection mandrels to ensure that the wax does not deposit.
Viscosity has a major impact on wax deposition rate. As viscosity

increases, wax deposition rates decrease because wax particles diffuse
less easily to the pipe wall (shear effect). Therefore, care needs to be
taken when injecting chemicals to reduce viscosity for hydraulic
performance improvement.
Page 33 of 47
11.2.7 Operational Scrapping for Wax Control
Modelling of wax deposition in simulators such as Olga can assist

operators in determining scrapping frequency needed for a specific field
configuration. Modelling will predict the location of deposition, deposit
thickness over time, the pressure drop increase, and the total volume of
wax needing removal during pigging operations. However, in general,
wax deposition models are generally conservative and over predict
deposition rates. Pigging frequency can be determined by using the
deposition rate prediction and various rules of thumb, including;
 Limiting the pressure drop across the scrapper to 50-100 psi;
 Limiting total wax volume in front of the scrapper to 50 bbl;
 Limiting total wax thickness to 10% of the cross sectional area;
 Limiting total wax thickness to 1 – 4 mm depending on the deposition
rate.
The last rule of thumb depends to a large extent on the pipeline U-value.
A fast deposition rate with high U-values (i.e., bare pipe) is often softer
and easier to remove, with higher concentrations of oil. This condition
can permit the operator to scrap when the thickness reaches 4 mm.
Conversely, slow deposition rates with low U-values (highly insulated
pipes) produce deposits which are usually harder because they are more
concentrated with high carbon number paraffins), and required scrapping
at 1 – 2 mm thickness to prevent the scrapper becoming stuck in the
pipe.
Operators should fine tune the actual scrapping frequency as the field
comes on line and more experience in gained in actual wax deposition
rates.
11.2.8 Thermal Insulation for Wax Control
Active and passive insulation systems are the most common means
employed to control wax deposition. By keeping the production fluids
temperature above the WAT during normal operation, the fluids can be
produced without deposition occurring. During shut-in, the fluids can be
allowed to cool below WAT, as this will cause little deposition, and most
likely the wax will be melted after restart and warm-up. There are many
methods used in insulate pipeline and well bores, and the final use of
insulation type will depend on the economics of the field. In many field
developments, insulation and the facilities for chemical inhibition and
Page 34 of 47
operational scrapping are employed to ensure wax deposition will not

become problematic through field life.
11.3 Wax Gelation
A prolonged period of pipeline shut-in, the wax may form a gel strong enough to
entirely block a pipeline and prevent it from being restarted.
The pour-point temperature (PPT) is the lowest temperature at which the oil is
mobile. This is also identified as the stock-tank-oil gelation temperature.
Wax gelation a problem that occurs during long shut-down of the pipeline, as
the fluids cools towards ambient temperature below the PPT, causing a candle or
solid like structure which can completely block the pipeline. During restart, if
there is not enough pressure at the inlet to break the gel and allow fluids to move
and the pipeline can become redundant.
11.3.1 Laboratory Wax Deposition Rate Determination
In laboratory measurements, the pour point is the temperature at

which the fluid no longer moves once inverted in a sample container.
The pour point measurement is dependent on cooling rate, with fast rates
predicting higher pour points. Therefore, the cooling rate used in the
laboratory should match closely with the anticipated cooling rate in the
field, based on any insulation methods applied. Laboratory tests should
preferably be performed with live oil tests, as gas in the fluids tends to
decrease the pour point.
If pour point has been determined to be at a lower temperature than

ambient seabed, then no further testing is required.
While pour point testing helps identify the risk of restart problems, gel
strength (or yield) tests are required to determine the pressure to break
the gel during restart. The wax may not need to fully yield for the
pipeline restart to occur, as generally a “domino effect” will occur at
significantly lower pressures.
11.3.2 Chemical Injection Effects on Wax Gelation
Pour point depressants might be required for continuous system

treatment when the pour point is above ambient temperatures and restart
pressures are excessive. Depressants may be selected to;
 Reduce the pour point below the ambient seabed temperature.
 Reduce the restart pressure below acceptable levels.
Page 35 of 47
The choice will depend on the dosage rate and cost of each chemical.
If option b is chosen, a gel may still form, but it would be weak enough
to break easily. It should be noted that the depressant chemical will
require to be injected at some temperature margin above WAT and pour
point temperature.
Additionally, depressant chemicals might have an additional advantage

of reducing the wax deposition rate. Therefore, if depressant chemical is
used, testing should be done to verify its effects on wax deposition.
11.3.3 Thermal Control of Pour Point
Maintaining fluids above the pour point is critical, both in normal

operation and shut-down. The cool-down time to pour point might be
very short, in the region of four to six hours. Active heating could be
used during a shut-down to maintain temperature and re-melt the gel
prior to restart.
11.3.4 Fluid Displacement and Pre-Heat for Gelation Control
Displacement of produced fluids using an inert fluid (other than dead oil)
is also a possible solution to gelation. A looped flowline can be used to
allow fluid displacement (flush) to remove all of the in-situ production
fluids prior to gel formation. Sufficient insulation needs to be provided
to ensure that the entire production system can be flushed prior to cool-
down. Flowlines can be preheated prior to restart to stop wax gelation
until the production fluids warm above the pour point. The heating
medium can be diesel, hot water or treated hot production fluids.
Storage for heating medium and displaced fluids will be required, along
with facilities to heat the flush fluid and pump around the loop.
11.4 Hydrates
If water is present, light molecules such as methane combine with water

molecules to form a solid phase, hydrate, which can plug lines. Again, this can
be predicted as a thermodynamic phase, and can be stable for low temperatures.
Within the context of pipelines, these temperatures occur if the fluid approaches
sea-bed temperature, either due to shut-in, long distance or poor insulation.
Hydrates formation can be inhibited chemically with glycol, methanol, or brine-
salt concentration. Hydrate formation may also be delayed using kinetic hydrate
inhibitors (KHI). At low pressure, the hydrate phase is not thermodynamically
stable at sea-bed temperature, and hence depressurization can be used to inhibit
hydrate formation during long-term shut-down.
Page 36 of 47
11.4.1 Introduction
At high pressure light natural gas and water (methane, ethane, propane,
iso-butane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide) combine to
form an ice like solid crystalline phase, called a (gas) hydrate, which can
cause operational problems or fully block hydrocarbon transport lines.
Hydrates contain a tremendous amount of gas. For example, 1 m³ of

hydrate disassociates (melts) at atmospheric temperature and pressure to
form 164 m³ of natural gas plus 0.8 m³ of water.
11.4.2 Hydrate Structures
Typically hydrates usually form two structures called Type I and Type II,
depending on the gas molecules used in the hydrate formation, although
a rarer third Type H, may form. When considering inhibition strategy,
understanding the structure type can be important.
11.4.3 Hydrate Prediction
Hydrate formation and disassociation can be predicted as a

thermodynamic phase, using a number of multiphase simulation tools.
The prediction usually occurs as a curve over a range of pressures and
temperatures (hydrate curves) as in the example below. In this example,
at 500 psia, hydrate is predicted to form at circa 42F, and dissociate at
54F. The region between the two curves is considered the hydrate
formation risk region. In this region, there is a risk that hydrates can be
present. Hence, for design and operational purposes, where laboratory
obtained curves are not available, the hydrate dissociation curve is
Page 37 of 47
generally used, in addition to a design margin, of 5°F (3°C) (as per

SAES-A-014) in all cases, regardless of the method of inhibition.
Figure 10 - Sample Hydrate Curve
11.4.4 Hydrate Formation
Within the context of pipelines, hydrate formations occur if the fluid is

allowed to cool as it leaves a production well or compression train,
either due to pipeline shut-in, long distance, JT cooling or poor
insulation. The pipeline system must always be designed to operate
normally outside the hydrate risk region, or continuous inhibition will be
required. In addition, equipment such as production choke valves,
causing JT cooling can cause production fluids to enter the hydrate zone,
and hence the fluids temperature downstream of these valves will need
careful monitoring and hydrate mitigation must be implemented as a
matter of routine.
11.4.5 Hydrate Inhibition
The most common form of hydrate inhibition is chemically with glycol or

methanol (thermodynamic) inhibitor. It should be noted that it is the water
content in the pipeline that is inhibited. Hydrate formation may also be
delayed using kinetic hydrate inhibitors (KHI). Where continuous
injection of inhibitor is used for hydrate mitigation, the dosage rate
Page 38 of 47
calculated on the amount of water present must be based on the maximum

possible pressure that can be experienced in the pipeline (e.g., SITHP or
HIPS set point) with the lowest ambient temperature. A design margin in
agreement with company standard SAES-A-014 of 15% overdose in MEG
rate should be included. Dosage rates of KHI must be defined with
chemical vendor.
11.4.6 Thermal Management
Where thermal management (heat retention by means of insulation) is

the primary means of hydrate mitigation, prior to a planned extended
shut-in of the system, consideration should be given to inhibiting the
water content in the pipeline prior to shut-down. This will extend
hydrate survival time or eliminate the hydrate threat as the fluids cool to
ambient temperature at shut-in pressure. For unplanned shut-downs, or
situations where it is not possible to inhibit the water content,
depressurization to below hydrate pressure at ambient temperature is the
main procedure applied to ensure hydrates do not form during shut-
down. The time at which the depressurization must occur is dependent
on the rate at which the fluids cool and the initial shut-in pressure of the
pipeline. This time is often referred to as “No Touch Time”, and must be
predicted by simulation, during the design of the pipeline. However,
where a Pipeline Management System (PMS) has been supplied to the
pipeline, the no touch time can be predicted based on live data.
Hydrates generally form in a week spot in the system; generally,

un-insulated or un-inhibited sections, but could also occur in both
production and injection wells. Where possible, manifold and pipework
should be designed to eliminate low points where water can accumulate
in conjunction with “dead leg” sections where hydrate inhibitor cannot
be injected.
11.4.7 Hydrate Recovery/Remediation
If hydrate mitigation fails and a total blockage (plug) of a pipeline were

to occur, the means to removal will depend on a number of factors, the
most important being the location of the blockage. However, locating
the blockage exact position in a long pipeline can be difficult, and will
depend on the availability of pressure measurement.
It should be noted that hydrate remediation can be a prolonged and

arduous process taking may days and weeks and needs to be performed
in safe manner to minimize damage to facilities.
Page 39 of 47
11.4.7.1 Depressurization
In all instances, hydrate remediation must involve

depressurization of the system, regardless on an additional
remediation methods applied. This should occur both up
and downstream of the blockage location if facilities allow.
This will help minimize the risk of hydrate plug run away,
where a high pressure drop exists across the plus leading to the
plug travelling at high velocity and damaging pipe bends and
valves. Thermodynamic inhibitor should be injected to
minimize the risk of secondary hydrate blockage occurring,
even if the closest injection point is some distance away from
the plug. This should be done during the depressurization
stage.
11.4.7.2 Melting With Thermodynamic Inhibitors
Melting of plugs with thermodynamic inhibitors (MEG/MeOH)

may be applied if facilities allow. However, the inhibitor and
plug must be in contact; hence, an injection point near by the
plus would be required. Diluted inhibitor (with water from the
plug or existing in the pipeline) would need to be removed to
ensure that lean inhibitor remains in contact with the plug.
The time taken to melt the plug will depend on the plug
porosity. If the plug is porous, it will allow a higher surface
area of hydrate to be in contact with inhibitor, giving a lower
melting time. However, if the plug is not porous, the contact
area will be small and the melting time will be higher.
In horizontal sections for pipelines or in wells, if MeOH is

applied to melt the plug, a water layer will be formed.
The water layer is denser than MeOH, hence will stop the
contact of MeOH with the plug. Therefore, if the water cannot
be removed, the MeOH will be an ineffective melting agent.
MEG has a high viscosity at lower temperatures, for example,

at 32°F (0°C), its viscosity is circa 150 cP. This high viscosity
prevents MeOH flowing easily and can reduce its efficiency as
an effective melting agent.
11.4.7.3 Heating
If facilities allow, heating can be applied to the area near the

plug. Care must be taken in if this procedure is performed.
Page 40 of 47
As the plug melts, a large amount of gas will be releases which

can cause localized over pressure of the pipeline at the location
of the plug, with the potential to rupture the pipeline.
Therefore, if localized heating is applied, it should be located
at the edges of the plug, and not in the middle of the plug.
In addition, there should be no limit to the rate that the gas can
be removed from the pipeline during the heating process to
ensure rupture does not occur.
11.5 Commercial Multiphase Simulators
Commercially available simulators capable of modeling multiphase systems are

listed in SAEP-363. PIPEPHASE is often used for steady state simulations.
OLGA is by far the most popular transient simulator.
12 Drag Reducing Agents (DRA)
Drag Reducing Agents (DRA), also commonly known as Drag Reducing Polymers,
flow improvers, pipeline boosters, or drag reducers, are long chained chemical additives
that reduce the frictional losses associated with flow of fluid in a pipeline. Acting as
buffers along the pipe wall they decrease the amount of energy lost in turbulent
formation thus increasing the pipeline efficiency and the capacity. In addition, the
polymers help with drag reduction by decreasing turbulence in the oil lines. This results
in significant increase in the pipeline throughput, in some cases more than 100%
increase in product throughput can been achieved.
12.1 DRA Principle
When DRA dissolves into the pipeline fluid, the polymer molecules begin to
uncoil and outspread as they interact with the pipeline flow. This interaction is
complex; the long chain molecules dampen turbulent bursts near the pipe wall as
if they were acting as tiny shock buffers.
There is a lot of ongoing research on how DRA work, because turbulence

phenomenon itself is still a subject of study. Therefore, the buffer zone holds
the key to properly understand the polymeric drag reduction.
Page 41 of 47
Without DRA
With DRA
Drag Reduction (DR) is mathematical representation of the frictional pressure

drop reduction. It is calculated as the formulae listed below:
PF is Frictional Pressure loss
It is quantification of reduction in the frictional losses and energy loss:

 The same volume of fluid can be transported with lower pressure (reduced
OPEX)
 More volume of fluid can be transported with the same pressure (reduced
CAPEX)
Typical drag reduction performance graph is presented below:
Page 42 of 47
12.1.1 Advantages of DRA
DRA has found extensive use in the pipeline industry due to the
following advantages:
 DRA injection systems are quick, easy and cheap to install
 Requires very less dosage at PPM level
 Eliminating intermediate pump stations from system designs
 Cost effective way to manage seasonal peak demand
 De-bottleneck pipeline systems without expensive equipment
upgrades
 Reduce energy consumption by minimizing drag within the pipeline
 Preserve pipeline integrity by lowering operating pressure without
sacrificing pipeline capacity
12.1.2 Factors Affecting DRA Performance
There are various physical factors that affect DRA performance (which is
linked to shearing of the long-chained DRA polymer). The generalized
effect of various physical parameters are shown below:
Page 43 of 47
100
% Max Performance
PIPELINE
DIAMETER
EFFECT
0
4 48
Pipeline Size Effect
100
% M ax P erform an ce
PETROLEUM
TEMPERATURE
EFFECT
0
0 140
Fluid Temperature Effect
Page 44 of 47
100
% M a x P e r fo r m a n c e
PIPELINE
VELOCITY
EFFECT
0
0 15
Pipeline Velocity Effect
100
% M ax P erfo rm an ce
PETROLEUM
VISCOSITY
EFFECT
0
0 100
Fluid Viscosity Effect
It can be inferred from the figures presented above that the DR decreases
with increase in pipe diameter and/or viscosity. There is an optimum DR
point for fluid temperature and velocity above/below which the DR is
sub-optimal.
12.1.3 DRA Degradation
DRA degradation, as termed as shearing, happens as the DRA flows

along-with the fluid. There is general DRA degradation which can be
attributed to wear and tear. In addition, DRA may be severely degraded
while passing through elbows, bends, reducers, T joints, etc. However,
Page 45 of 47
most importantly, the Long Chain Polymer are destroyed when passing
through extreme turbulent and agitating flow regimes, such as Pumps,
Heater Stations.
12.2 DRA Application Area in Saudi Aramco
Within Saudi Aramco, DRA is widely used liquid pipelines including crude,
refined products (expect Jet Fuel), water injection, and other liquids due to its
excellent performance in fluid throughput increase. Use of DRA is not
recommended in highly viscous fluid pipelines such as Fuel Oil because DRA is
not effective in laminar flow pattern.
DRA may not be very effective in multi-phase fluids. This is because DRA,
thought work very well to decrease the drag in liquids, is not able to reduce the
drag caused by free gas. DRA are most effective in pipelines with gas-oil ratio
(GOR) of less than 2,000 scf/bbl. Therefore, it is recommended that a DRA trial
shall be performed to gauge the flow enhancement benefits in multi-phase
fluids. Continuation of DRA injection in multi-phase fluids shall be determined
by net realized gains (e.g., OPEX vs. CAPEX).
12.3 DRA Performance and concentration limits in Saudi Aramco
It is claimed that DRA can reduce drag by up to 80%. Within Saudi Aramco
drag reduction of up to 70% has been achieved. Given the uncertainty
associated with DRA performance, DRA field trial is recommended to:
 Verify that DRA can increase the throughput of the pipeline
 Establish drag reduction performance curve in the field
 Identify and rectify potential reasons for underperformance of DRA
 Perform product quality conformance tests
Usually DRA testing is performed at existing flow rate limits. The DR curve is
extrapolated to predict DR for higher flow rates. Due to various factors
affecting the DR as stated in above section, the prediction may be different from
what can be realistically achieved in the field. Therefore, it is recommended to
consider 10% DR margin on the predicted DR.
For DRA usage limits in fluids, DRA qualification and testing procedure, please
refer to SAEP-501.
Page 46 of 47
13 Contributor Authors
Name Affiliation
Rasheed, Mahmood A. Process & Control Systems Department
Ge, Jianzhi X Process & Control Systems Department
Jain, A. Process & Control Systems Department
Espedal, Mikal X. Prod. & Fac. Dev. Department
Ian Davis Process & Control Systems Department
Revision Summary
1 January 2013 New Saudi Aramco Best Practice.
2 January 2017 Major revision to include more details about multiphase, wax, hydrate, and DRA
Chemicals.
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Best Practice

SABP-Z-033 2 January 2017

Previous Issue: 1 January 2013 Next Planned Update: TBD

©Saudi Aramco 2017. All rights reserved.

2 Conflict and Deviation

3.1 Saudi Aramco References

Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedures

SAEP-501 Drag Reducing Agent (DRA) Chemicals

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards

Saudi Aramco Best Practice

Saudi Aramco Engineering Reports

3.2 International Standards and Codes

ANSI/ASME Code “Process Piping” Chemical plant and petroleum refinery

ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems for

American Petroleum Institute

American Water Works Association

National Fire Protection Association

4 Definitions and Abbreviations

5.2 Flow Assurance Importance

Reservoir fluids are very complex. Reservoir oils consist of thousands of

The basic principles for flow assurance design are:

The major flow assurance analysis issues are:

ramping-up, turn-down and shutdown.

6 Flow Assurance Analysis

7 Flow Assurance Design Basis

7.1 Thermohydraulic Design

The thermohydraulic analysis evaluates the lifecycle pressure and temperature

At the beginning, basic design and operating principles should be set.

Thermal modeling is typically combined with hydraulic modeling because

7.2 Transient Thermohydraulic Behavior Assessment

The operation of subsea production flowlines involves transient processes,

Transient thermohydraulic modeling includes slugging, warm-up with restart,

7.3 Solids Formation/Deposition Assessment

Methods for remediation of deposited solids need to be developed.

7.4 Operating Strategies

Operating strategies must be developed in accordance with the flow assurance

7.5 Facility Requirements

7.6 System Economics

There are numerous design options, manufacturing considerations and

8 Pipeline Hydraulic Analysis Design

8.1 Design Input

The thermal conductivity of water-saturated concrete should be used for subsea

Table 1 - Design Basis Data for Sizing Flow Lines – 1/2

Table 2 - Design Basis Data for Sizing Flow Lines – 2/2

8.2 Design Procedures

8.2.1 Pressure Drop Design Criterion

The maximum allowable pressure drop in a pipeline is determined by its

conducted on a gathering system, the allowable pressure drop is

8.2.2 Erosional Velocity

A production stream is considered “solid-free” if the solid concentration

Erosion is defined as the material loss by physical wear of liquid droplets

 C=100 for continuous service and 125 for intermittent service

The velocity in a pipeline should be kept within a limited range.

A designer can change pipeline diameter and operating pressure to

8.2.3 Minimum Velocity

The minimum velocity for a pipeline should be considered in multiphase

The minimum velocity depends on many variables including:

The actual minimum velocity can only be quantified by system modeling

8.3 Thermal Requirements

Table 3 - Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Insulated Pipes

8.4 Analysis Procedure

The purpose of hydraulic analysis is to obtain pressures, temperatures and

A steady state multiphase simulator is enough for normal operation study

b. Input detailed pipeline profile.