Solution Manual For Organizational Behavior Emerging Knowledge Global Reality 9th Edition Steven Mcshane Mary Von Glinow

Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge.
Global Reality, 9th Edition
Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior:

Emerging Knowledge. Global Reality, 9th Edition,
Steven McShane, Mary Von Glinow
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Chapter 6: Applied Performance Prac5ces
Instructor’s Manual to Accompany

Organizational Behavior 9/e
by Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann Von Glinow
Chapter 6:
Applied Performance
Practices
Prepared by Steven L. McShane,

University of Newcastle (Australia)
Page 6-1
Copyright © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. No reproduc5on or distribu5on without the prior wriGen consent of McGraw-Hill.
6 Applied Performance
Practices
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
6-1 Discuss the meaning of money and identify several individual-, team-, and organizational-level
performance-based rewards.
6-2 Describe five ways to improve reward effectiveness.
6-3 List the advantages and disadvantages of job specialization.
6-4 Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee motivation
through job design.
6-5 Define psychological empowerment and identify strategies that support empowerment.
6-6 Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work environment
influences on self-leadership.
CHAPTER GLOSSARY
employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) — a reward job evaluation — systematically rating the worth of jobs
system that encourages employees to buy company stock within an organization by measuring the required skill,
effort, responsibility, and working conditions
gainsharing plan — a team-based reward that calculates
bonuses from the work unit’s cost savings and job specialization — the result of a division of labor, in
productivity improvement which work is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to
different people
intrinsic motivation — occurs when people fulfill their
needs for competence and autonomy by engaging in the mental imagery — the process of mentally practicing a
activity itself, rather than from an externally controlled task and visualizing its successful completion
outcome of that activity
profit-sharing plan — a reward system that pays bonuses
job characteristics model — a job design model that to employees on the basis of the previous year’s level of
relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific corporate profits
personal and organizational consequences of those
psychological empowerment — a perceptual and
properties
emotional state in which people experience more self-
job enlargement — the practice of increasing the number determination, meaning, competence, and impact
and variety of related tasks assigned to a job regarding their role in the organization
job enrichment — the practice of giving employees more scientific management — the practice of systematically
responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning partitioning work into its smallest elements and
their own work standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency
Page 6-2
self-leadership — specific cognitive and behavioral task identity — the degree to which a job requires
strategies to achieve personal goals and standards completion of a whole or an identifiable piece of work
through self-direction and self-motivation
task interdependence — the extent to which team
self-talk — the process of talking to ourselves about our members must share materials, information, or
own thoughts or actions expertise in order to perform their jobs
skill variety — the extent to which employees must use task significance — the degree to which a job has a
different skills and talents to perform tasks within their substantial impact on the organization and/or larger
jobs society
stock options — a reward system that gives employees
the right to purchase company stock at a future date at a
predetermined price
CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE

6-1 Discuss the meaning of money and identify several individual-, team-, and organizational-level
performance-based rewards.
Money (and other financial rewards) is a fundamental part of the employment relationship, but it also relates to
our needs, our emotions, and our self-concept. It is viewed as a symbol of status and prestige, as a source of
security, as a source of evil, or as a source of anxiety or feelings of inadequacy.
Organizations reward employees for their membership and seniority, job status, competencies, and performance.
Membership-based rewards may attract job applicants and seniority-based rewards reduce turnover, but these
reward objectives tend to discourage turnover among those with the lowest performance. Rewards based on job
status try to maintain internal equity and motivate employees to compete for promotions. However, they tend to
encourage a bureaucratic hierarchy, support status differences, and motivate employees to compete and hoard
resources. Competency-based rewards are becoming increasingly popular because they encourage skill
development. However, they tend to be subjectively measured and can result in higher costs as employees spend
more time learning new skills.
Awards and bonuses, commissions, and other individual performance-based rewards have existed for centuries and
are widely used. Many companies are shifting to team-based rewards such as gainsharing plans and to
organizational rewards such as employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs), stock options, and profit sharing.
Although ESOPs and stock options create an ownership culture, employees often perceive a weak connection
between individual performance and the organizational reward.

Financial rewards have a number of limitations, but reward effectiveness can be improved in several ways.
Organizational leaders should ensure that rewards are linked to work performance, rewards are aligned with
performance within the employee’s control, team rewards are used where jobs are interdependent, rewards are
valued by employees, and rewards have no unintended consequences.

Job design is the process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs.
Job specialization subdivides work into separate jobs for different people. This increases work efficiency because
employees master the tasks quickly, spend less time changing tasks, require less training, and can be matched more
closely with the jobs best suited to their skills. However, job specialization may reduce work motivation, create
mental health problems, lower product or service quality, and increase costs through discontentment, absenteeism,
and turnover.
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6-4 Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee motivation
through job design.
The job characteristics model is a template for job redesign that specifies core job dimensions, psychological states,
and individual differences. The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and job feedback. Jobs also vary in their required social interaction (task interdependence), predictability of work
activities (task variability), and procedural clarity (task analyzability). Contemporary job design strategies try to
motivate employees through job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment. Organizations introduce job
rotation to reduce job boredom, develop a more flexible workforce, and reduce the incidence of repetitive strain
injuries. Job enlargement involves increasing the number of tasks within the job. Two ways to enrich jobs are
clustering tasks into natural groups and establishing client relationships.
Psychological empowerment is a perceptual and emotional state in which people experience more self-
determination, meaning, competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization. Individual
characteristics seem to have a minor influence on empowerment. Job design is a major influence, particularly
autonomy, task identity, task significance, and job feedback. Empowerment is also supported at the organizational
level through a culture that encourages informal learning and discovery, sufficient information and resources, and
corporate leaders who trust employees.
6-6 Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work environment
influences on self-leadership.
Self-leadership refers to specific cognitive and behavioral strategies to achieve personal goals and standards
through self-direction and self-motivation. These strategies include personal goal setting, constructive thought
patterns, designing natural rewards, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement. Constructive thought patterns
include self-talk and mental imagery. Self-talk occurs in any situation in which a person talks to himself or herself
about his or her own thoughts or actions. Mental imagery involves mentally practicing a task and imagining
successfully performing it beforehand. People with higher levels of conscientiousness, extroversion, and a positive
self-concept engage in more self-leadership. Self-leadership also occurs more readily in workplaces that support
empowerment and have high trust between employees and management.
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LECTURE OUTLINE
Slide 1: Applied Performance Practices
Slide 2: Learning Objectives

6-1 Discuss the meaning of money and identify several individual-, team-, and
organizational-level performance-based rewards.
6-4 Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee
motivation through job design.
6-6 Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work
environment influences on self-leadership.
Slide 3: Applied Performance Practices at Softcom

Softcom Ltd. in Lagos, Nigeria, has a highly motivated workforce, driven by meaningful
jobs, rewards aligned with the company’s purpose and values, and an emphasis on self-
leadership.
• Software firm’s 165 employees are motivated through autonomy, meaningful work,
sense of purpose, and ongoing learning
• Various rewards, ranging from hackathon achievements to St. Valentine’s Day
recognition messages
• Strong emphasis on self-leadership — “There’s just that expectation for you to take
ownership of your time and ideas”
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Slide 4: Meaning of Money at Work

Money and other financial rewards are a form of exchange in return for employee’s labor,
skill, and knowledge
Money also relates to our needs and our self-concept, and generates various emotions
• A symbol of achievement and status
• A source of enhanced or reduced anxiety
• An influence on our propensity to make ethical or risky decisions
Money interpreted differently from one person to the next

• As a tool — valued as an instrument for acquiring other things of value
• As a drug — an object of addictive value in itself
Money ethic — higher when money is perceived as

• Not evil
• A symbol of achievement, respect, and power
• Something of value to be budgeted carefully
Meaning of money differs between men and women

• Money is valued more by men than by women
• Men tend to view money as a symbol of power/status
• Women tend to view money as instrumental (exchanged for things of value)
Meaning of money varies across cultures

• High power distance cultures — money has higher respect/priority
• Nurturing (egalitarian) cultures — discourage discussing or displaying wealth
• Cultural differences in value of saving vs spending money
Money motivates more than previously believed
• Due more to money’s symbolic value than to what it can buy
• Higher performance with higher paycheck — affects self concept evaluation
• Symbolic value of money depends on its distribution (equal/unequal) in the firm
Slide 5: Membership/Seniority-Based Rewards

Fixed wages, seniority-based rewards — largest part of most paychecks
Advantages
• Guaranteed wages may attract job applicants
• Minimizes stress of financial insecurity
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• Seniority-based rewards reduce turnover
Disadvantages
• Do not directly motivate job performance
• May discourage poor performers from leaving voluntarily
• May act as “golden handcuffs” — discourage employees from quitting
Slide 6: Job Status-Based Rewards

Higher pay for employees in jobs with higher worth or status
Job evaluation — systematically rating the worth of jobs within an organization by
measuring the required skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions
Some perks (company car, club memberships, etc) based on job status
Advantages:
• Tries to maintain pay fairness (comparable worth), minimize pay discrimination
• Motivates competition for promotions
Disadvantages:
• Encourages bureaucratic hierarchy
• Reinforces status vs. egalitarian workplace culture
• Employees may exaggerate duties, hoard resources
Slide 7: Skill-Based Pay at Wonderful Company

Production and technical employees at Los Angeles-based conglomerate Wonderful
Company are motivated by a skill-based pay plan to continuously gain more knowledge and
skills
Slide 8: Competency-Based Rewards

Two main types of competency pay
1. Competency-based pay ranges — employees increase their pay within the range by
acquiring and demonstrating more competencies
2. Skill-based pay — pay increases with number of skill blocks/modules learned,
e.g., technical skills
Page 6-7
Advantages
• Motivates learning new skills
• More flexible workforce — multiple skills and more adaptive
• Higher product/service quality
Disadvantages
• Overdesigned programs (complex)
• Competency definitions may be vague/subjective — skill-based plans are more
objective
• Higher training costs
Slide 9: Performance-Based Rewards

Individual-level rewards
• Bonuses (executives), piece rates (hotel housekeeping), commissions (sales)
Team Rewards — typically bonuses to entire team

• Team performance bonuses
• Gainsharing plans
➡ Bonuses from cost savings/productivity gains (i.e., team and firm share cost savings)
➡ May improve team dynamics, knowledge sharing, and pay satisfaction
➡ Motivates because of reasonably strong effort-to-performance link
Organizational Rewards
• Organizational bonus
• Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) — a reward system that encourages employees
to buy company stock
• Stock options — the right to purchase company stock at a future date at a
predetermined price
• Profit-sharing plan — employee bonuses based on percentage of latest corporate
profits
Evaluating Organizational Rewards
• ESOPs, stock options create an “ownership culture”
• Profit-sharing automatically adjusts pay with firm’s prosperity
• Problem with organizational rewards
➡ Weak connection between individual effort and rewards (low P-to-O expectancy)
Page 6-8
Slide 10: Improving Reward Effectiveness

Problems with performance-based rewards
• Distances management from employees
• May undermine intrinsic motivation
• May discourage creativity
• Used as quick fixes, ignoring true causes of poor performance
Reward systems do motivate employees, under the right conditions
1. Link rewards to performance
• Higher rewards to those with better performance (link pay with performance)
• Minimize biases/inconsistencies through more objective plans, e.g., gainsharing, ESOPs
2. Ensure rewards are relevant

• Reward outcomes within employee’s control (“line of sight”)
3. Use team rewards for interdependent jobs
• Difficult to measure individual performance when jobs interdependent
4. Ensure rewards are valued

• Avoid assuming what employees want or that everyone values the same reward
5. Watch out for unintended consequences
• Think through consequences of rewards
• Test incentives in a pilot project
Slide 11: Job Design and Work Efficiency

Effective job design tries to balance potentially competing effects of efficiency and
motivation
• Jobs with few tasks and requiring few skills — become efficient quickly, but lack
motivation potential
• Jobs with many tasks and requiring many skills — can be highly motivating (to a point),
but long timer to become efficient
Work efficiency through job specialization

• The result of a division of labor, in which work is subdivided into separate jobs assigned
to different people
• Short cycle time — the time required to complete the task before starting over with
another item or client
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Slide 12: Job Specialization and Scientific Management

Job specialization improves work efficiency because:
• Less time changing activities
➡ Also less cognitive changeover inefficiency (mind lingering on previous task)
• Jobs mastered more quickly
➡ Less training time/costs because fewer tasks to learn
➡ Shorter cycle time, so more frequent practice on tasks
• Better person-job matching
➡ Jobs have fewer skill requirements, so easier to match jobs with employee abilities
Scientific management
• Maximize work efficiency through job specialization and task standardization
• Also advocated employee selection, training, goal setting, work incentives
• Championed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in early 1900s
Problems with job specialization
• Low motivation — jobs become tedious, trivial, and socially isolating
• Higher absenteeism and turnover
• May require higher wages to offset dissatisfying, narrowly defined work
• Affects work quality
➡ Higher quality because easier to master the job
➡ Lower quality due to less attentiveness, lower motivation, and difficultly recognizing
problems in work process
Slide 13: Job Design and Work Motivation

Job characteristics model — a job design model that relates the motivational properties of
jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties
Core job characteristics
• Skill variety — using different skills/talents to perform tasks
➡ E.g., sales clerks also stock inventory and change store-front displays
• Task identity — completing a whole or identifiable piece of work
➡ E.g., assembling an entire broadband modem rather than just soldering circuitry
• Task significance — job’s perceived effect on firm and/or society
➡ E.g., quality of servicing aircraft engines affects passenger safety
• Autonomy — freedom, independence and discretion in scheduling the work and
determining procedures
• Job feedback — direct feedback from job about task performance
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➡ E.g., pilots can tell how well they land the plane while performing the task
Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness — believe the work is worthwhile/important
• Experienced responsibility — feel personally accountable
• Knowledge of results — information on consequences of work effort
Individual Differences
• Job dimensions motivate only when employees have skills and knowledge to master job
• Model originally also included growth need strength and satisfaction with job context,
but mixed support for these contingencies
Slide 14: Social and Information Processing Job Characteristics

Social characteristics of the job — Required interaction with others (clients, coworkers, etc)
• Task interdependence — job requires social interaction with coworkers — the extent to
which team members must share materials, information, or expertise in order to
perform their jobs
• Feedback from others — from coworkers, clients, etc
Information processing demands of the job
• High task variability — job has non-routine work patterns
➡ Tasks are varied and unpredictable tasks from one day to the next
• High task analyzability — job can be performed using known procedures and rules
➡ Ready-made “cookbook” to guide most decisions and actions
➡ Low task analyzability jobs require employee creativity and judgment
Slide 15: Frequent Job Rotation

The practice of moving employees from one job to another, typically one or more times
each day
Benefits
• Higher motivation potential — employees use a wider variety of skills (skill variety)
throughout the day.
• Better knowledge of quality issues — employees develop a clearer picture of that
process and ways to improve product quality.
• Lower health risks — less risk of repetitive strain and heavy lifting injuries.
• Greater workforce flexibility — employees learn how to perform multiple jobs, gives
company more flexibility to fill vacant positions.
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Slide 16: Job Enlargement

Adding more tasks to an existing job — increases skill variety
Example: Video journalist is an example of an enlarged job
• A traditional news team consists of a camera operator, a sound and lighting specialist,
and the journalist who writes and reports the story
• One video journalist performs all of these tasks
Slide 17: Job Enrichment

Giving employees more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning their work
Job enrichment strategies:
1. Natural grouping
➡ Combining interdependent tasks into one job
➡ E.g., video journalist (news story), assembling an entire product, etc
2. Establishing client relationships

➡ Employee has direct responsibility for clients
➡ Employee communicates directly with their clients — no supervisor in between
Slide 18: Dimensions of Psychological Empowerment

Definition: a perceptual and emotional state in which people experience more self-
determination, meaning, competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization
Self-determination
• Employees believe they have freedom, independence, and discretion over their work
activities.
Meaning
• Employees care about their work and believe that what they do is important.
Competence
• Employees are confident about their ability to perform the work well and have a
capacity to grow with new challenges (self-efficacy).
Impact
• Employees view themselves as active participants in the organization — their decisions
and actions influence the company’s success.
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Slide 19: Supporting Empowerment

Individual factors
• Possess competencies, can perform the work, can handle additional decision-making
demands
Job design factors
• Autonomy, task identity, task significance, receive job feedback
Organizational factors
• Resources and information is accessible, learning orientation culture, employees are
trusted
Slide 20: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Focusing on the Positive

Orthopedic surgeon Sarah Coll practices self-leadership by focusing on positive rather than
negative self-talk and by engaging in constructive mental imagery.
Slide 21: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Cognitive and Behavioral

Strategies
Cognitive and behavioral strategies to achieve personal goals and standards through self-
direction and self-motivation
• Includes concepts/practices from goal setting, social cognitive theory, sports
psychology
Slide 22: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Goal Setting and Thought

Patterns
Personal Goal Setting
• Set goals for your own work effort
• Apply effective goal setting practices
• Requires a high degree of self-awareness
Constructive Thought Patterns

• Self-talk — increases self-efficacy.
• Mental imagery
Page 6-13
Slide 23: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery

Designing Natural Rewards
• Finding ways to make the job more motivating
Self-Monitoring
• Keeping track of one’s progress
• Using naturally-occurring feedback
• Designing feedback systems
Self-reinforcement
• “Taking” a reinforcer only after completing a self-set goal
Slide 24: Predictors of Self-Leadership

Individual factors:
• Higher levels of conscientiousness and extroversion
• Positive self-concept evaluation (self-esteem, self-efficacy, internal locus)
Organizations factors:
• Job autonomy
• Participative and trustworthy leadership
• Measure-oriented culture
Page 6-14
? SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING

QUESTIONS
1. As a consultant, you have been asked to recommend either a gainsharing plan or a profit-sharing
plan for employees who work in the four regional distribution and warehousing facilities of a large
retail organization. Which reward system would you recommend? Explain your answer.
Gainsharing plans are team rewards that motivate team members to reduce costs and increase labor efficiency in
their work process. Profit sharing includes any arrangement where a designated group of employees receives a
share of corporate profits.
In this situation, a gainsharing plan in each of the four regional facilities would probably be more appropriate. The
main reason is that these employees would have a small effect on corporate profits, but could significantly influence
costs in their respective facility. As noted in the textbook, rewards are more effective when employees have direct
control over the outcomes measured for those rewards.
A related explanation is that gainsharing is team-based whereas profit sharing applies to all employees. The
mandate here is clearly to introduce a reward system for people within the four facilities, not a reward for the entire
organization.
2. Which of the performance reward practices—individual, team, or organizational—would work

better in improving organizational goals? Please comment with reference to an organization of
your choice.
Individual, team or organizational performance based rewards are likely to work differently depending on the type
of organization. For example, in a research based organization, individual reward practices are likely to discourage
researchers from sharing thoughts and ideas and any information related to their research with their colleagues.
Team rewards are likely to work better because it will encourage researchers to come together as groups and will
enhance within-group sharing practices. Organizational level rewards may create a culture where the researchers
feel aligned with the organization’s success, however, it may not work enough to motivate the poor-performers nor
provide enough incentives for the top performers to work harder.
3. Waco Tire Corporation redesigned its production facilities around a team-based system. However,
the company president believes that employees will not be motivated unless they receive
incentives based on their individual performance. Give three reasons why Waco Tire should
introduce team-based rather than individual rewards in this setting.
Waco Tire should definitely use team rather than only individual rewards in this situation. One reason is that the
company probably won’t be able to identify or measure individual contributions very well in the redesigned
production facility.
Even if Waco Tire could distinguish individual performance, it should use team incentives because they tend to
make employees more co-operative and less competitive. People see that that their bonuses or other incentives
depend on how well they work with co-workers, and they act accordingly.
The third reason for having team rewards in team settings is that they influence employee preferences for team-
based work arrangements. If Waco Tire wants employees to accept and support the team-based structure, a team-
based reward system would help to increase that acceptance.
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4. What can organizations do to increase the effectiveness of financial rewards?

Link rewards to performance. Use objective performance criteria; ensure rewards are timely and significant
enough to create positive emotions.
Ensure rewards are relevant. Reward people for performance within their control/influence and be ready to adjust
performance measures due to factors beyond employees’ control.
Ensure rewards are valued. Know your employee and what you need and want.
Watch out for unintended consequences. Use pilot projects to test the impact the reward will have on employees
and make changes before implementing throughout the organization.
5. Most of us have watched pizzas being made while waiting in a pizzeria. What level of job
specialization do you usually notice in these operations? Why does this high or low level of
specialization exist? If some pizzerias have different levels of specialization than others, identify
the contingencies that might explain these differences.
The answer to this question partly depends on how pizzas are made in your area. Our nonsystematic observation of
pizza-making is that, in busy pizza places, several people are assigned to specific tasks. One person prepares the
dough; one or more people fill the orders (puts ingredients on the pizza and places it in the conveyor or fixed oven);
someone else unloads, cuts, and boxes the cooked pizzas. The person operating the cash register usually has the
pizza unloading task. Other people perform the pizza delivery task.
This relatively high level of specialization occurs because it increases efficiency. Time is saved because employees
don’t change tasks. They develop their skills quickly in their assigned task (an important issue where pizza shops
rely on students and other temporary part-time staff). This specialization also allows the store to assign people to
tasks for which they demonstrate the best skill. For example, some people have better coordination at tossing the
pizza dough so it spreads out evenly. Others have good physical strength to cut pizzas.
Students will probably identify different degrees of specialization than we have noted here. Smaller pizza shops
may be operated by two people who share most tasks (except delivery). They might both prepare the pizzas as well
as load and unload them from the oven.
Technology may also play a role in the division of labor. Conveyor-type ovens (uncooked pizza is placed on one end
and cooked pizza comes out the other end) would allow two people to load and unload the pizzas, respectively. A
fixed oven (where the pizza is loaded in and pulled out) might work better with one person because he/she keeps
track of the cooking time.
Lastly, some students might note that jobs are generally specialized but there is job rotation throughout the shift.
This might occur to minimize boredom and avoid repetitive strain injuries.
6. Can a manager or supervisor “empower” an employee? Discuss fully.

Empowerment refers to a feeling of control and self-efficacy that emerges when people are given power in a
previously powerless situation. Empowered people are given autonomy—the freedom, independence, and
discretion over their work activities. They are assigned tasks that have high levels of task significance—
importance to themselves and others. In summary, empowerment is a psychological concept. Supervisors or
managers cannot directly empower an employee. However, they can create a work environment where employees
are more likely to experience empowerment. Some of these initiatives include:
- Ensuring employees have the necessary competencies to be effective
- Reducing bureaucratic control
- Designing jobs that provide task significance and task identify
- Ensuring employees have the information and resources they need
- Appreciating learning and recognizing mistakes are part of the learning employees
- Trusting employees
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7. Describe a time when you practiced self-leadership to perform a task successfully. With reference
to each step in the self-leadership process, describe what you did to achieve this success.
This question provides the opportunity for students to reflect on their own application and experience with self-
leadership. Increasingly, corporate leaders desire to hire employees with the ability to demonstrate self-leadership.
Reflecting on a time when you demonstrated self-leadership and describing your behaviors will prepare you to
respond to an interview question designed to assess this valued competency. Responses will vary. Following are
some considerations that an organizational recruiter may look for:
Personal goal setting. Establishing goals that were specific, results-oriented and challenging.
Constructive thought patterns. Engaging in positive self talk and/or using mental imagery to visualize successful
completion of a task.
Designing natural rewards. Considering your own needs and preferences to make your job more motivating and
satisfying.
Self-monitoring. Keeping track of your progress and/or ensuring you received feedback needed to enhance your
performance.
Self-reinforcement. Using self-induced forms of positive reinforcement to reward yourself for completing a task or
achieving a goal.
8. The city manager of a large city government wants to reduce supervisory costs by encouraging
employees to motivate and manage themselves much of the time. The manager has heard of self-
leadership, and believes that it may be a key strategy to reduce the number of supervisors in the
organization. Discuss the extent to which self-leadership practices among employees would
support the city manager’s objectives. Also, summarize the content of a training module that
would improve any one of the self-leadership practices?
Students should begin answering this question with the definition of self-leadership: It refers to specific cognitive
and behavioral strategies to achieve personal goals and standards through self-direction and self-motivation. Self-
leadership is a replacement for some (not all) roles of a supervisor or other leader. Through self-leadership,
employees set their own goals, monitor and guide their own behavior, motivate themselves through positive
thinking (self-talk), and reward themselves (self-reinforcement). Self-leadership does not completely replace
supervisory roles. For example, managers are still needed for macro-level planning, division of work, and resolving
interpersonal and interdepartmental conflicts. Another factor to consider is that even under the best conditions,
some employees do not easily apply self-leadership practices. They may be very effective employees with normal
supervision, but lack the ability or personality to engage in self-leadership to the extent that supervisors are not
required. Thus, the city manager might be able to reduce the number of supervisors, but the issues stated here limit
how much and even whether this can occur. At the very least, the current supervisors would have more freed up
time in some of their tasks (setting goals and motivating staff) because some or most employees would take on
more of these roles through self-leadership training
The part of this question asks students to describe a training module for any one of the self-leadership practices.
Here are some ideas regarding each self-leadership practice:
Personal goal setting. This module would have employees learn the basic features of effective goals (see SMARTER
list in Chapter 5), write goals for specific activities in their own job, and receive feedback from the trainer or
manager on the quality of these goals and how to improve them. Another module might focus on the daily activity
of personal goal setting, such has having a coach check in with employees on whether they have set goals for
themselves that day, how well they remained focused on those goals, and how they learned to improve goals setting
through this experience.
Constructive thought strategies. A training module might be similar to how David McClelland taught participants
to develop strongly need for achievement, but in this instance participants would learn to develop a more positive
“can do” mindset. For example, have students write out positive stories about their near future selves, speak to
other participants about themselves in a positive way — and receive feedback when their discussion is too self-
critical. Another training approach would be to work with a personal coach who gets the employee to repeat that
they are able to be the best person for a particular task or role. Another training module could focus on the mental
Page 6-17
imagery aspect of constructive thought strategies. This could involve having participants think through (and
perhaps write down) the steps in a task, recognize things that could go wrong, and identify strategies to avoid or
overcome those problems. This is a form of scenario planning for individuals (see Chapter 7).
Designing natural rewards. A module covering this practice would educate employees and have them practice
forms of natural rewards, such as trading off tasks with other employees, taking on more of tasks they enjoy,
changing ways that tasks are accomplished to make them more enjoyable, and by teaching employees to reframe a
specific work activity that isn’t particularly motivating so it may feel more motivating.
Self-monitoring. A training model for this practice would have employees diagnostically review every way their
current job gives them feedback on their performance on specific tasks. Then employees are asked to identify ways
to make the feedback easier to receive or, where tasks lack good feedback, identify strategies to generate that
feedback within given resources.
Self-reinforcement. Along with describing self-reinforcement, participants in this training module would write out
possible self-reinforcers at work and describe occasions where they applied them (i.e., previously engaged in self-
reinforcement). Participants might share examples of self-reinforcement, particularly if they are in similar jobs. A
coaching-type of training module might have coaches speak to coaches at various times about a task they are
performing and what reinforcer they will apply to themselves when the task is completed or a milestone has been
reached. The idea is for trainees to understand self-reinforcement, find examples of it in their job and past
behavior, and maintain vigilance of the self-reinforcement process in their daily work life.
Page 6-18
CS CASE STUDY: YAKKATECH, INC.
Case Synopsis
This case describes events at the customer service centers of YakkaTech, Inc., an information technology services firm
employing 1500 people throughout Washington and Oregon. YakkaTech relies on a ticket system, in which staff
complete work for a specific “ticket” rather than serve one client all of the time. The system (as well as dramatically
larger customer service centers) has resulted in several problems, including poorer customer service, employee
indifference to client problems, slow response, and lack of staff knowledge about each client. Staff turnover has
increased above the industry average. Employees report that the work is monotonous and they feel disconnected from
their work results. The company increased pay rates and introduced a vested profit-sharing plan to improve morale and
reduce turnover. Turnover dropped, but customer complaints and productivity remain below expectations or have
worsened.
Discussion Questions with Suggested Answers

1. What symptom(s) in this case suggest that something has gone wrong?
This case identifies several symptoms, including poorer customer service, employee indifference to client problems,
slow response, lack of staff knowledge about each client, high staff turnover (prior to reward system change),
declining employee referrals, lower productivity. Students should distinguish these symptoms according to their
causes (problem analysis).
2. What are the main causes of these symptoms?

(a) Jobs Have Low Motivational Potential
The main problem in this case is that the jobs have low motivational potential. Students need to analyze the
motivational potential of these jobs by considering the five core job characteristics:
Skill variety — Seems to be moderate because each ticket would result in some variety of tasks. However, staff say
the work gets monotonous over time. Furthermore, staff are organized into departments, which may result in a
narrow range of tasks performed by each person.
Task identity — Some students might say task identity is high because staff complete an entire ticket. But is the
ticket an entire task? The case suggests that managing the clients entire system (or subsystem, such as software
maintenance, hardware, maintenance, etc.) is the “whole task.” As such, the ticket system results in fairly low task
identity.
Task significance — This appears to be quite low because staff don’t know how their work affects the client. Also, if
they perform one small task for a particular client (low task identity), the significance of their work is less apparent,
and likely perceived to be low.
Autonomy — Not much information on autonomy. We don’t know whether staff members need to follow precise
procedures or whether they have a lot of freedom to conduct their work. However, the ticket system necessarily
restricts autonomy regarding managing one’s job duties, because staff are fed precise jobs to perform, rather than
having the autonomy to arrange timing on when they perform a variety of jobs.
Job feedback — The case indicates that employees receive very little job feedback. They don’t know whether their
actions produced a long-term or only brief solution to the problem, because a recurring problem results in a new
ticket submitted randomly to another staff member. Furthermore, the case implies that staff have limited direct
interaction with clients. Client feedback, including subtle verbal and nonverbal communication, can be considered
a form of job feedback, so job feedback is low in this regard.
This diagnosis predicts that employees experience low meaninglessness in their jobs, a conditions which is verified
in employee comments that they feel disconnected from the results of their work and that employees show little
Page 6-19
care towards client issues. Jobs with low motivational potential also result in lower job satisfaction and lower work
effectiveness, both of which are apparent in this case.
(b) Poor Alignment of Money and Rewards
The latter part of this case stated that YakkaTech increased raise pay rates for its customer service staff to become
among the highest in the industry. The assumption was that the high pay rates would improve morale and reduce
turnover, thereby reducing hiring costs and improving productivity. In addition, YakkaTech introduced a vested
profit-sharing plan, in which employees received the profit-sharing bonus only if they remained with the company
for two years after the bonus was awarded. these actions reduced turnover because both were clearly linked to
continued employment. The vested profit sharing plan punished those who quit because they lost up to two years of
profit sharing bonus. The significant pay increase punished those who left because few other jobs in the industry
paid as well.
However, the reward system was misaligned in other ways. First, these pay interventions were only remotely
associated with individual job performance. Specifically, the profit sharing bonus would have been affected to a
very small extent by each employees performance. This remote connection is unlikely to motivate employees to
perform better, particularly in a company of this size and when the bonus is not paid out two years later. The pay
system also relies heavily on individual membership, whereas it appears that these jobs have a degree of
interdependence, such as working with the on0site team or sharing a ticket with people in another department.
Thus, the individual reward plan was minimally aligned with the work.
(c) Continuance Commitment from Golden Handcuffs
Some students will analyze this case, in part, from the perspective or continuance commitment (see Chapter 4).
Specifically, the company introduced a vested profit-sharing plan, in which employees receive the profit sharing
bonus for that year only if they remain with the company for the subsequent two years. This situation creates
continuance commitment, in which it becomes more costly to leave the company—employees who quit or are
sacked for just cause lose up to two years of profit sharing bonus. Continuance commitment tends to produce lower
job performance and lower job satisfaction, both of which occurred in this case after the vested profit-sharing plan
was introduced.
(d) Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect (EVLN)
Some students might apply the EVLN model (see Chapter 4). In this case, however, EVLN is more a description of
what happened rather than any explanation. Exit (high turnover until pay incentive introduced); Voice (indirect
complaints to management, survey results); Loyalty (not much evidence of this); Neglect (poor service, not passing
on jobs).
3. What actions should YakkaTech executives take to correct these problems?

The clearest action in this case is to reorganize jobs to increase their motivational potential as well as improve
coordination for interdependent work. Job enrichment around establishing client relationships seems to be well-
suited to this situation. In effect, individuals (or more likely, teams) would be organized around clients such that
clients approach the same staff for all of their IT problems and needs. Staff members would feel a greater sense of
task significance and task identity. They would develop a better understanding of the client’s needs for each
incident, would develop better feedback about the effectiveness of their interventions, and would feel more
responsibility for their actions (because of greater psychological closeness to the client).
A second solution is to revise the reward and recognition practices so they are aligned with the work and desirable
attitudes and behaviors. If jobs are redesigned around teams and clients, then a team-based reward system could
be considered because specific people can be identified with specific long-term client successes and failures. Profit
sharing might remain, but more proximate rewards are preferred.
Page 6-20
TEAM EXERCISE: IS STUDENT WORK

TE ENRICHED?
Purpose
This exercise is designed to help students to learn how to measure the motivational potential of jobs and to evaluate the
extent that jobs should be further enriched.
Instructions (Small Class)

Being a student is like a job in several ways. You have tasks to perform and someone (such as your instructor) oversees
your work. Although few people want to be students most of their lives (the pay rate is too low!), it may be interesting to
determine how enriched your job is as a student.
Step 1: Students are placed into teams (preferably four or five people).
Step 2: Working alone, each student completes both sets of measures in this exercise. Then, using the guidelines below,
they individually calculate the score for the five core job characteristics as well as the overall motivating potential score
for the job.
Step 3: Members of each team compare their individual results. The group should identify differences of opinion for
each core job characteristic. They should also note which core jobs characteristics have the lowest scores and
recommend how these scores could be increased.
Step 4: The entire class will now meet to discuss the results of the exercise. The instructor may ask some teams to
present their comparisons and recommendations for a particular core job characteristic.
Instructions (Large Class)

Step 1: Working alone, each student completes both sets of measures in this exercise. Then, using the guidelines below,
they individually calculate the score for the five core job characteristics as well as the overall motivating potential score
for the job.
Step 2: Using a show of hands or classroom technology, students indicate their results for each core job characteristics.
The instructor will ask for results for several bands across the range of the scales. Alternatively, student can complete
this activity prior to class and submit their results through online classroom technology. Later, the instructors will
provide feedback to the class showing the collective results (i.e., distribution of results across the range of scores).
Step 3: Where possible, the instructor might ask students with very high or very low results to discuss their views with
the class.
Comments to Instructors
This exercise is self-explanatory. The answer key is provided in the textbook for students to score their own results.
Students tend to enjoy this exercise because it forces them to evaluate something that is central to them (particularly
full-time students). Be prepared for some searching questions about why some instructors don’t make student work
more enriched! Here are some discussion activities for this exercise.
1. Compare student enrichment scores with those of other jobs. The average scores of the five core job characteristics
and MPS for selected job groups are presented in the exhibit below. (This information is not provided in the textbook.)
Page 6-21
2. Determine where students are least enriched in their work, and determine how this could become more enriched. In
other words, after identifying the weakest core job characteristic(s), identify job enrichment strategies that would raise
the motivating potential score for students along this or these dimensions.
Motivating Potential Scores for Selected Job Groups

Variable Managerial Clerical Sales National (U.S.)
Skill Variety 5.6 4 4.8 4.7
Task Identity 4.7 4.7 4.4 4.7
Task Significance 5.8 5.3 5.5 5.5
Autonomy 5.4 4.5 4.8 4.9
Job feedback 5.2 4.6 5.4 4.9
MPS 156 106 146 128
Page 6-22
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.1: WHAT IS YOUR

SA ATTITUDE TOWARD MONEY?
Overview and Instructions
Money is a fundamental part of the employment relationship, but it is more than just an economic medium of
exchange. Money affects our needs, our emotions, and our self-concept. People hold a variety of attitudes towards
money. One widely studied set of attitudes, known as the "money ethic,” is measured in this self-assessment.
Students are asked to read each of the statements in the survey instrument and select the response that they believe
best reflects their position regarding each statement. This instrument has 12 questions, which produces results on all
three dimensions of money ethic.
Feedback for the Money Attitude Scale

This self-assessment generates considerable interest among students, which is not surprising given the interest that
most people have in money.
This money attitude scale estimates the person’s overall “money ethic” as well as scores on its three dimensions: money
as power/prestige, retention time, and money anxiety. Each subscale has a potential score ranging from four to 20
points; the overall money attitude scale has a range from 12 to 60 points. Higher scores indicate that the person has a
higher level of each attitude. The following tables indicate the range of scores among a sample of over 200 MBA
students.
Money as Power/Prestige
People with higher scores on this dimension tend to use money to influence and impress others. Scores on this subscale
range from four to 20. The average score among a sample of MBA students was 9.9.
Score Interpretation
12 to 20 High power/prestige score

9 to 11 Moderate power/prestige score
4 to 8 Low power/prestige score
Retention Time
People with higher scores on this dimension tend to be careful financial planners. Scores on this subscale range from
four to 20. The average score among a sample of MBA students was 15.
17 to 20 High retention time score

14 to 16 Moderate retention time score
4 to 13 Low retention time score
Page 6-23
Money Anxiety
People with higher scores on this dimension tend to view money as a source of anxiety. Scores on this subscale range
from four to 20. The average score among a sample of MBA students was 12.8.
12 to 20 High money anxiety score

9 to 11 Moderate money anxiety score
4 to 8 Low money anxiety score
Money Attitude Total

This is a general estimate of how much respect and attention you give to money. Scores on this total scale range from 12
to 60. The average score among a sample of MBA students was 37.6.
41 to 60 High money ethic score

35 to 40 Moderate money ethic score
16 to 34 Low money ethic score
Page 6-24
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.2: ARE YOU EMPOWERED

SA AS A STUDENT?

Empowerment is a psychological concept represented by feelings of self-determination, meaning, competence, and
impact. The empowerment concept applies to people in a variety of situations, not just the workplace. This self-
assessment specifically refers to your position as a student at your college or university.
Students are asked to read each statement in this instrument and select the response that best indicates the degree to
which they personally agree or disagree with that statement. This instrument has 12 statements.
Feedback for the Student Empowerment Scale

The school empowerment scale estimates your personal feelings of empowerment as a student at the school where you
are enrolled. Specifically, this scale considers the feelings of self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact you
have as a student. Scores on this scale range from 12 to 84. A higher score indicates a higher level of empowerment as a
student.
How does your score compare with others? Ideally, you would compare your score with the collective results of other
students in your class, but this might not be possible. Alternatively, the following graph provides a more general
estimate of high and low scores on student empowerment.
60 to 84 High empowerment
36 to 59 Moderate empowerment
12 to 35 Low empowerment
Page 6-25
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.3: HOW WELL DO YOU

SA PRACTICE SELF-LEADERSHIP?

Self-leadership refers to specific cognitive and behavioral strategies that people apply to themselves to support the self-
direction and self-motivation needed to perform a task. It recognizes that successful employees mostly regulate their
own actions rather than rely on others to motivate them.
Students are asked to individually read each of the statements in the instrument and select the response that they
believe best reflects their position regarding each statement
Feedback for the Self-Leadership Scale

The six components of self-leadership measured in this scale are personal goal setting, mental practice, designing
natural rewards, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement, and cueing strategies. It is very useful for students to complete
this self-assessment before any lecture or discussion of the topic because students pay much more attention to the
details after estimating their own score.
The following table applies to each of the six self-leadership subscales.
13 to 15 High score
8 to 12 Average score
3 to 7 Low score
Personal Goal Setting

Self-leadership includes the practice of setting your own performance-oriented goals and, more specifically,
establishing specific, challenging, and relevant goals. Scores on this subscale range from three to 15. A higher score
indicates a higher level of personal goal setting. In a sample of 200 MBA students across several classes and years, the
average score was 11.57.
Mental Practice
Mental practice (called mental imagery in the textbook) involves mentally rehearsing future events. Mental practice
includes thinking through the activities required to perform the task, anticipating obstacles to goal accomplishment,
and working out solutions to those obstacles before they occur. Mentally walking through the activities required to
accomplish the task helps us to see problems that may occur. Scores on this subscale range from three to 15. A higher
score indicates a higher level of mental practice. In a sample of 200 MBA students, the average score was 11.06.
Designing Natural Rewards

Designing natural rewards is the process of altering tasks and work relationships to make the work more motivating.
This might involve changing the way you complete a task so the activity is more interesting. Or it might involve making
slight changes in your job duties to suit your needs and preferences. Scores on this subscale range from three to 15. A
Page 6-26
higher score indicates a higher level of designing natural rewards. In a sample of 200 MBA students, the average score
was 11.4.
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring is the process of keeping track of your progress toward a goal. It includes consciously checking at
regular intervals how well you are doing. Scores on this subscale range from three to 15. A higher score indicates a
higher level of self-monitoring. In a sample of 200 MBA students, the average score was 11.78.
Self-Reinforcement
Self-reinforcement is the practice of rewarding yourself after successfully completing a task. It occurs whenever you
have control over a reinforcer but don't "take" the reinforcer until completing a self-set goal. Scores on this subscale
range from three to 15. A higher score indicates a higher level of self-reinforcement. In a sample of 200 MBA students,
the average score was 11.49.
Cueing Strategies
The cueing strategies component of self-leadership is not explicitly described in your textbook’s discussion of self-
leadership. However, it relates to the process of self-managing the antecedents (cues) of behavior described in the
chapter on behavior modification. In self-leadership, cueing strategies are self-set or self-controlled antecedents rather
than introduced and controlled by others. Scores on this subscale range from three to 15. A higher score indicates a
higher level of cueing strategies. In a sample of 200 MBA students, the average score was 10.98.
Self-Leadership (total)
Self-leadership is the process of influencing oneself to establish the self-direction and self-motivation needed to
perform a task. Scores on this overall scale range from 18 to 90. A high score indicates a higher level of overall self-
leadership. In a sample of 200 MBA students, the average score was 68.29.
The following table shows the range of scores in categories based on the distribution of scores from 200 MBA students
across several classes and years.
73 to 90 High score
18 to 64 Low score
Page 6-27
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.4: DO YOU HAVE A

SA PROACTIVE PERSONALITY?

People differ in how much they try to influence the environments in which they live. Those with a proactive personality
take action to change things while less proactive people adapt to the existing situation. Proactive personality is a stable
personality characteristic, and is associated with self-leadership.
Feedback for the Proactive Personality Self-Assessment

This instrument estimates the individual’s proactive personality. People with a proactive personality have a tendency to
take action to change things, show initiative, and persevere until the desired change has occurred. They seek out
opportunities and enact change. Those with less proactive personality patiently wait for circumstances to improve, or
passively adapt to the existing situation. Proactive personality is considered a relatively stable individual
characteristics. This instrument has six questions.
28 to 36 High score
6 to 14 Low score
Page 6-28
MCGRAW-HILL CONNECT®: JOB DESIGN AND

JOB ENRICHMENT
Type of Activity
Click and Drag
Activity Summary
The job characteristics model identifies five core characteristics of any job: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback. It further states that the presence of these can result in three critical psychological states:
meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results. In the following activity, students read about several workers
and determine whether or not their job fulfills these critical psychological states.
Activity Learning Objective(s)

06-04 Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee motivation through job
design.
Concept Review
The challenge of job design, at least from the organization's perspective, is to find the right combination of efficiency
and employee motivation so that work is performed efficiently but employees are engaged and satisfied. Early
approaches in job design such as scientific management focused on productivity and a high degree of job specialization.
While increasing efficiency, extreme job specialization can have an adverse impact on employee attitudes and
motivation. A more modern approach to job design is job enrichment. Job enrichment occurs when employees are
given more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning their own work. While there are various
techniques to enrich a job, at the heart of all of them is to give employees more autonomy, which is at the core of
empowerment.
Page 6-29
Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Emerging Knowledge. Global Reality, 9th Edition
MCGRAW-HILL CONNECT®: SELF-LEADERSHIP
Type of Activity
Timeline
Activity Summary
Self-leadership refers to the process of influencing oneself to establish the self-direction and self-motivation needed to
perform a task. This concept includes a toolkit of behavioral activities borrowed from social cognitive theory and goal
setting. In the following activity, students review the steps of the self-leadership process and apply concepts related to
each step.
Activity Learning Objective(s)

06-06 Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work environment influences on
self-leadership.
Concept Review
A survey of 800 British employers revealed that the characteristic they most look for in employees is self-motivation.
One form of self-motivation is to engage in self-leadership. Self-leadership means an employee is self-directed and self-
motivated to perform a task without their manager generating that motivation or initiative. Self-leadership suggests
that employees mostly regulate their own actions through a variety of behavioral and cognitive activities.
Page 6-30
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Instructor’s Manual to Accompany

Prepared by Steven L. McShane,

CHAPTER SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVE

6-2 Describe five ways to improve reward effectiveness.

6-3 List the advantages and disadvantages of job specialization.

Slide 1: Applied Performance Practices

Slide 2: Learning Objectives

Slide 3: Applied Performance Practices at Softcom

Slide 4: Meaning of Money at Work

Money interpreted differently from one person to the next

Money ethic — higher when money is perceived as

Meaning of money differs between men and women

Meaning of money varies across cultures

Slide 5: Membership/Seniority-Based Rewards

• Seniority-based rewards reduce turnover

Slide 6: Job Status-Based Rewards

Slide 7: Skill-Based Pay at Wonderful Company

Slide 8: Competency-Based Rewards

Slide 9: Performance-Based Rewards

Team Rewards — typically bonuses to entire team

Slide 10: Improving Reward Effectiveness

2. Ensure rewards are relevant

4. Ensure rewards are valued

Slide 11: Job Design and Work Efficiency

Work efficiency through job specialization

Slide 12: Job Specialization and Scientific Management

Slide 13: Job Design and Work Motivation

Critical Psychological States

Slide 14: Social and Information Processing Job Characteristics

Slide 15: Frequent Job Rotation

Slide 16: Job Enlargement

Slide 17: Job Enrichment

2. Establishing client relationships

Slide 18: Dimensions of Psychological Empowerment

Slide 19: Supporting Empowerment

Slide 20: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Focusing on the Positive

Slide 21: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Cognitive and Behavioral

Slide 22: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery: Goal Setting and Thought

Constructive Thought Patterns

Slide 23: Practice Self-Leadership in Surgery

Slide 24: Predictors of Self-Leadership

? SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING

2. Which of the performance reward practices—individual, team, or organizational—would work

4. What can organizations do to increase the effectiveness of financial rewards?

6. Can a manager or supervisor “empower” an employee? Discuss fully.

CS CASE STUDY: YAKKATECH, INC.

Discussion Questions with Suggested Answers

2. What are the main causes of these symptoms?

3. What actions should YakkaTech executives take to correct these problems?

TEAM EXERCISE: IS STUDENT WORK

Instructions (Small Class)

Instructions (Large Class)

Motivating Potential Scores for Selected Job Groups

SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.1: WHAT IS YOUR

Feedback for the Money Attitude Scale

12 to 20 High power/prestige score

17 to 20 High retention time score

12 to 20 High money anxiety score