HEALTH EDUCATION (LECTURE)
NCM 102 SECOND SEMESTER
Module 1 - Introduction to Health Education
WHAT IS HEALTH EDUCATION?
➔ Health education is a social science that
draws from the biological,
environmental, psychological, physical,
and medical sciences to promote health
and prevent disease, disability, and
premature death through
education-driven voluntary behavior
change activities.
➔ Health education is the development of
an individual, group, institutional,
community, and systemic strategies to
improve health knowledge, attitudes,
skills, and behavior.
HEALTH EDUCATION IS?
➔ The DEVELOPMENT of IGICS:
I Individual
G Group
I Institutional
C Community, AND
S Systemic Strategies
➔ To IMPROVE HEALTH:
K Knowledge
A Attitudes
S Skills, AND
B Behavior
PURPOSE OF HEALTH EDUCATION
➔ The purpose of health education is to
positively influence individuals and
communities' health behavior and the
living and working conditions that
influence their health.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
1. Health education improves the health
status of individuals, families,
communities, states, and the nation.
2. Health education enhances the quality
of life for all people.
3. Health education reduces premature
deaths.
4. By focusing on prevention, health
education reduces the costs (both
financial and human) that individuals,
employers, families, insurance
companies, medical facilities,
communities, the state, and the nation
would spend on medical treatment.
PROCESS OF HEALTH EDUCATION
STEP 1 MANAGE THE PLANNING
PROCESS
STEP 2 CONDUCT A SITUATIONAL
ASSESSMENT
STEP 3 IDENTIFY GOALS, POPULATIONS
OF INTEREST, OUTCOMES, AND
OUTCOME OBJECTIVES
STEP 4 IDENTIFY STRATEGIES, ACTIVITIES,
OUTPUTS, PROCESS OBJECTIVES,
AND RESOURCES
STEP 5 DEVELOP INDICATORS
STEP 6 REVIEW THE PROGRAM PLAN
STEP 1: MANAGE THE PLANNING PROCESS
➔ Purpose: to develop a plan to manage
stakeholder participation, timelines,
resources, and determine methods for
data-gathering, interpretation, and
decision making.
● Plan to engage stakeholders, including
clients and staff, in a meaningful way.
● Establish a clear timeline for creating a
work plan.
● Plan how you will allocate financial,
material, and human resources.
● Consider the data required to make
decisions at each step and include
 adequate data collection and
interpretation time.
● Establish a clear decision‐making
process. (e.g., by consensus, by
committee).
STEP 2: CONDUCT A SITUATIONAL ASSESSMENT
➔ Purpose: to learn more about the
population of interest, trends, and issues
that may affect implementation,
including the wants, needs, and assets of
the community.
➔ This step involves identifying: what is the
situation; what is making the situation
better and what is making it worse; and
what possible actions you can take to
address the situation.
● Use diverse types of data (e.g.
community health status indicators,
stories/testimonials; evaluation findings;
“best practice” guidelines).
● Sources of data (e.g. polling companies;
community/partner organizations;
researchers; governments; private
sector).
● Data collection methods (e.g.
stakeholder interviews or focus groups;
surveys; literature reviews; review of past
evaluation findings or stakeholder
mandates/policies).
STEP 3: IDENTIFY GOALS, POPULATIONS OF
INTEREST, OUTCOMES, AND OUTCOME OBJECTIVES
➔ Purpose: to use situational assessment
results to determine goals, populations of
interest, outcomes, and outcome
objectives.
● Ensure program goals, populations of
interest, and outcome objectives are
aligned with strategic directions of your
organization or group.
● Goal: a broad statement providing
overall direction for a program over a
long period of time.
● Population(s) of interest: group or groups
that require special attention to achieve
your goal.
● Outcome objective: brief statement
specifying the desired change caused
by the program.
STEP 4: IDENTIFY STRATEGIES, ACTIVITIES, OUTPUTS,
PROCESS OBJECTIVES, AND RESOURCES
➔ Purpose: to use the results of the
situational assessment to select strategies
and activities, feasible with available
resources, that will contribute to your
goals and outcome objectives.
● Brainstorm strategies (e.g. health
education, health communication,
organizational change, policy
development) for achieving objectives
using one or more health promotion
frameworks such as the Ottawa Charter
for Health Promotion or the
socioecological model.
● Prioritize ideas by applying situational
assessment results.
● Identify specific activities for each
strategy, including which existing
activities to start, stop, and continue.
● Select outputs and develop process
objectives.
● Consider available financial, human and
in‐kind resources.
STEP 5: DEVELOP INDICATORS
➔ Purpose: to develop a list of variables
that can be tracked to assess the extent
to which outcome and process
objectives have been met.
● For each outcome and process, the
objective considers the intended result
and whether:
(a) The intended result can be divided into
separate components.
(b) The intended result can be measured.
(c) There is an appropriate time for
observing a result.
(d) Required data sources are accessible,
and the resources needed to assess the
result are available.
● Define indicators to measure each
outcome and process objective and
perform a quality check on proposed
indicators ensuring they are valid,
reliable, and accessible.
● Indicators are used to determine the
extent to which outcomes and process
objectives were met.
 STEP 6: REVIEW THE PROGRAM PLAN
➔ Purpose: to clarify the contribution of
each component of the plan to its
objectives, identify gaps, ensure
adequate resources, and ensure
consistency with the situational
assessment findings.
● A logic model is a graphic depiction of
the relationship between all parts of a
program (i.e., goals, objectives,
populations, strategies, and activities)
and is one way in which a program
overview can be communicated.
● Review the plan to determine whether:
(a) Strategies effectively contribute to goals
and objectives.
(b) Short-term objectives contribute to
long-term objectives.
(c) The best activities were chosen to
advance the strategy.
(d) Activities are appropriate to the
audiences.
(e) The resources are adequate to
implement the activities.
TYPES OF HEALTH EDUCATION
1 Environmental Health
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
● Why is Critical Thinking Important to
Nurses?
● What are the Different Kinds of Nursing
Knowledge?
● What are the Five Major Categories of
Critical Thinking?
● What is the Nursing Process?
● What are the components of the Nursing
Process?
● What is Full Spectrum Nursing?
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
➔ A combination of:
● Reasoned thinking
● Openness to alternatives
● Ability to reflect
● A desire to seek truth
WHY IS CRITICAL THINKING
IMPORTANT FOR NURSES?
● Nurses deal with complex situations.
● Our clients are unique.
● Nurses apply knowledge to provide
holistic care.
● Nursing is an applied discipline.

2 Physical Health ● Nursing uses knowledge from other fields.

● Nursing is fast paced.
3 Social Health

4 Emotional Health WHAT IS THE NURSING PROCESS?

➔ Definition: A systematic problem solving

5 Intellectual Health
process that guides all nursing actions.
6 Spiritual Health ➔ Purpose: To help the nurse provide goal
directed, client centered care.
7 Sexual AND

8 Reproductive Health PHASES OF THE NURSING PROCESS

Assessment First phase; Data

gathering.
NURSING PROCESS OVERVIEW
Diagnosis Second phase; Identify
➔ Objectives: client’s health needs.
● Explain ways in which nurses use critical
thinking. Planning Decide goals you want
Outcomes to achieve with your
● Identify the steps of the nursing process.
nursing activities.
● Discuss the importance of the nursing
process as it relates to client care. Planning Decide interventions to
● Relate how nurses implement each step Interventions help the client achieve
of the nursing process. stated goals.
● Questions to Ponder...
Implementation Action phase; when you HEALTH EDUCATION VS HEALTH PROMOTION
carry out or delegate
actions you previously HEALTH The process of passing on
planned. EDUCATION health messages with the aim
of influencing people’s
Evaluation Final phase; judge behavior, attitudes and
whether your actions practices.
have successfully treated
or prevented the client’s Radio H/E programmes
health problems. Drama shows
Film show
Person to person
TEACHING & LEARNING OF NURSES Posters, books &
magazines(IEC materials)
➔ “The education process is a systematic,
Mobile audio systems/P.A
sequential, logical, scientifically based, system
planned course of action consisting of T.V
two major interdependent operations: Newspapers
teaching and learning”.
HEALTH The effort by the government
➔ The two interdependent players in the
PROMOTION or other service providers to
learner and education and growth
build capacity of the
occur in both parties. community to take control of
➔ The role of the educator is to promote their health.
learning and provide a conducive
Home improvement
learning environment.
campaigns
Selection and training VHT’S
RELATES THE EDUCATION PROCESS TO THE Family health days
NURSING PROCESS: Home visiting programmes
Health counselling
➔ That the actual act of teaching and Provision of safe water
instruction is one component of this sources
education process.
● Ascertain learning needs
IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH EDUCATION
● Develop a teaching plan
● Deliver teaching ● To create awareness on health issues.
● Determining behavior, attitude, or skill ● To prevent disease occurrence in the
changes community.
● To make the community aware of the
BARRIERS TO TEACHING & LEARNING available health services.
● To make health workers aware of the
➔ Lack of time
health needs and health problems of the
➔ Lack of motivation and skills
community.
➔ Negative environment
● It builds skills of the community or
➔ Lack of confidence and competence
individuals to manage their health
problems.
MOTIVATION FACTORS

➔ Personal attributes GROUP WORK

➔ Environmental influences
➔ Assess the advantages and
➔ Relationship systems
disadvantages of different methods of
➔ State of anxiety
health education in terms of average,
➔ Learner readiness
cost/affordability, accessibility, clarity,
➔ Realistic goal setting
feedback.
➔ Learner satisfaction and success
 PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION
➔ These are the building blocks or pillars of
H/E.
➔ They include;
● Interest
● Participation; learning by doing.
● Comprehension
● Reinforcement
● Motivation
INTEREST
➔ People do not listen to those things
which are not of their interest.
➔ People are not interested in health
slogans such as “Take Care Of Your
Health”, “Be Healthy”, “Be Clean”, etc.
➔ Therefore, Health Educators must find out
the real needs of the people.
➔ Health Educators must identify the felt
needs of the people & should be able to
address them.
➔ Where the need/demand is not felt, the
Health Educator should create it.
SECONDARY
PARTICIPATION
➔ Participation is based on the
psychological principle that group
learning, group discussion provide
opportunities for active learning.
➔ Health Education must involve social
participation where people are active
participants rather than active listeners or
spectators.
➔ Learning is an action process, not a
“memorizing “ one in the narrow sense.
“If I hear, I forget, if I see, I remember, if I
do, I know”, so health habits should be
cultivated in practice.
COMPREHENSION
➔ In health, one must know the level of
understanding of the targeted people.
➔ Thus, the teaching must be within the
mental capacity of the target group.
REINFORCEMENT
➔ Few people can learn and adopt new
ideas for the first time.
➔ Repetition at intervals is extremely useful.
➔ It assists comprehension and
understanding.
➔ Therefore, health instruction needs
reinforcement (repetitive support and
inducement).
MOTIVATION
➔ In every person, there is a fundamental
desire to learn.
➔ Awakening of this desire is called
motivation.
➔ In Health Education, motivation is an
imperfect factor.
➔ The incentives may be positive or
negative, but the positive must be
emphasized against the negative.
➔ There are two types of motives; primary
& secondary.
PRIMARY These motives are inborn
MOTIVES desires. E.g., sex, hunger,
survival, which initiate people
into action.
Based on desires created by
MOTIVES outside forces or incentives.
E.g., praise, love, rivalry,
rewards, punishment &
recognition.
KNOWN TO UNKNOWN
➔ For imparting Health Education, one
should proceed from the known to the
unknown.
➔ One should start from where people are
i.e. with what they understand, then
proceed with new knowledge.
➔ The existing knowledge of the people
should be used as pegs on which to
hang new knowledge.
7 KEY ROLES OF HEALTH EDUCATOR
➔ Implement Health Education strategies,
interventions and programmes.
➔ Communicate and advocate for health
& Health Education.
➔ Conduct evaluation and research
related Health Education.
➔ Serve as a Health Education resource
person.
➔ Assess individual and community needs
for Health Education.
 ➔ Plan Health Education strategies,
interventions and programmes.
Module 2 - Principles and Theories in Teaching
and Learning
(Behaviorist, Cognitive, Social, Psychodynamic,
Neuropsychology & Motor Learning)
LEARNING
➔ Learning: a relatively permanent change
in mental processing, emotional
functioning, and behavior as a result of
experience.
LEARNING THEORY
➔ Learning Theory: a coherent framework
of integrated constructs and principles
that describe, explain, or predict how
people learn.
CONTRIBUTION OF LEARNING THEORIES
● Provide information and techniques to
guide teaching and learning.
● Can be employed individually or in
combination.
● Can be applied in a variety of settings as
well as for personal growth and
interpersonal relations.
APPLICATION QUESTIONS TO KEEP IN MIND
● How does learning occur?
● What kinds of experiences facilitate or
hinder the process?
● What helps ensure that learning
becomes permanent?
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
➔ Concepts: stimulus conditions,
reinforcement, response, drive.
➔ To change behavior, change the
stimulus conditions in the environment
and the reinforcement after a response.
● Behaviorist Dynamics
● Respondent Conditioning
● Operant Conditioning
● Changing Behavior Using Operant
Conditioning
BEHAVIORIST DYNAMICS
● Motivation: drives to be reduced,
incentives.
● Educator: active role; manipulates
environmental stimuli and reinforcements
to direct change.
● Transfer: practice and provide similarity in
stimulus conditions and responses with a
new situation.
RESPONDENT CONDITIONING
● Learning occurs as the organism
responds to stimulus conditions and
forms associations.
● A neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus–and
unconditioned response connection until
the neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus that elicits the
conditioned response.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
● Learning occurs as the organism
responds to stimuli in the environment
and is reinforced for making a particular
response.
● A reinforcer is applied after a response,
strengthening the probability that the
response will be performed again under
similar conditions.
CHANGING BEHAVIOR USING
OPERANT CONDITIONING
● To increase behavior:
Positive reinforcement – Negative
reinforcement (escape or avoidance
conditioning)
● To decrease behavior:
Nonreinforcement – Punishment
COGNITIVE THEORY
➔ Concepts: cognition, gestalt, perception,
developmental stage, information
processing, memory, social
constructivism, social cognition,
attributions.
➔ To change behavior, work with the
developmental stage and change
cognitions, goals, expectations,
 equilibrium, and ways of processing
information. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE
● Cognitive Dynamics
● Learning is heavily influenced by the
● Gestalt Perspective
culture and occurs as a social process in
● Information-Processing Perspective
interaction with others.
● Cognitive Development Perspective
● A person’s knowledge may not
● Social Constructivist Perspective
necessarily reflect reality, but through
● Social Cognition Perspective
collaboration and negotiation, new
understanding is acquired.
COGNITIVE DYNAMICS

● Motivation: goals, expectations, SOCIAL COGNITION PERSPECTIVE

disequilibrium, cultural and group values.
● An individual’s perceptions, beliefs, and
● Educator: organize experiences and
social judgments are affected strongly
make them meaningful; encourage
by social interaction, communication,
insight and reorganization within the
groups, and the social situation.
learner.
● Individuals formulate causal explanations
● Transfer: focus on internal processes and
to account for behavior that has
provide common patterns with a new
significant consequences for their
situation.
attitudes and actions (attribution theory).

GESTALT PERSPECTIVE
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
● Perception and the patterning of stimuli
➔ Concepts: role modeling, vicarious
(gestalt) are the keys to learning, with
reinforcement, self-system,
each learner perceiving, interpreting,
self-regulation.
and reorganizing experiences in her/his
➔ To change behavior, utilize effective role
own way.
models who are perceived to be
● Learning occurs through the
rewarded, and work with the social
reorganization of elements to form new
situation and the learner’s internal
insights and understanding.
self-regulating mechanisms.
● Social Learning Dynamics
INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE

● The way individuals perceive, process, SOCIAL LEARNING DYNAMICS

store, and retrieve information from
● Motivation: compelling role models
experiences determines how learning
perceived to be rewarded, self-system
occurs and what is learned.
regulating behavior, self-efficacy.
● Organizing information and making it
● Educator: model behavior and
meaningful aids the attention and
demonstrate benefits; encourage the
storage process; learning occurs through
active learner to regulate and reproduce
guidance, feedback, and assessing and
behavior.
correcting errors.
● Transfer: similarity of setting, feedback,
self-efficacy, social influences.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE

● Learning depends on the stage of PSYCHODYNAMIC LEARNING THEORY

cognitive functioning, with qualitative,
➔ Concepts: stage of personality
sequential changes in perception,
development, conscious and
language, and thought occurring as
unconscious motivations, ego-strength,
children and adults interact with the
emotional conflicts, defense
environment.
mechanisms.
● Recognize the developmental stage and
➔ To change behavior, work to make
provide appropriate experiences to
unconscious motivations conscious, build
encourage discovery.
 ego-strength, and resolve emotional
conflicts.
● Psychodynamic Dynamics

PSYCHODYNAMIC LEARNING DYNAMICS

● Motivation: libido, life force, death wish,

pleasure principle, reality principle,
conscious and unconscious conflicts,
developmental stage, defenses.
● Educator: reflective interpreter; listen and
pose questions to stimulate insights.
● Transfer: remove barriers such as
resistance, transference reactions, and
emotional conflicts.

HUMANISTIC LEARNING THEORY

➔ Learning occurs on the basis of a

person’s motivation, derived from needs,
the desire to grow in positive ways,
self-concept, and subjective feelings.
➔ Learning is facilitated by caring
facilitators and a nurturing environment
that encourages spontaneity, creativity,
emotional expression, and positive
choices.

HUMANIST DYNAMICS

● Motivation: needs, desire to grow,

self-concept.
● Educator: act as a facilitator who
respects learner’s uniqueness and
provides freedom to feel, express, and
grow creatively.
● Transfer: positive or negative feelings
and choices as well as the freedom to
learn, promote, or inhibit transfer.
 BEHAVIORIST Concepts: stimulus
THEORY conditions,
reinforcement,
response, drive.
To change behavior,
change the stimulus
conditions in the
environment and the
reinforcement after a
LEARNING THEORY
response.
COGNITIVE Concepts: cognition,
THEORY gestalt, perception,
developmental stage,
information processing,
memory, social
constructivism, social
cognition, attributions.
To change behavior,
work with the
developmental stage
and change
cognitions, goals,
expectations,
equilibrium, and ways
of processing
information.
To change behavior,
work to make
unconscious
motivations conscious,
build ego-strength, and
resolve emotional
conflicts.
HUMANISTIC Learning occurs on the
basis of a person’s
motivation, derived
from needs, the desire
to grow in positive
ways, self-concept,
and subjective feelings.
Learning is facilitated
by caring facilitators
and a nurturing
environment that
encourages
spontaneity, creativity,
emotional expression,
and positive choices.

SOCIAL LEARNING Concepts: role

THEORY modeling, vicarious
reinforcement,
self-system,
self-regulation.
To change behavior,
utilize effective role
models who are
perceived to be
rewarded, and work
with the social situation
and the learner’s
internal self-regulating
mechanisms.

PSYCHODYNAMIC Concepts: stage of

LEARNING THEORY personality
development,
conscious and
unconscious
motivations,
ego-strength,
emotional conflicts,
defense mechanisms.
 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING
● Physiological and neurological bases of
thinking, learning, and behavior.
● Neurological conditions, mental health
issues, and learning disabilities.
● Relationship between stress and learning.
● Integration of learning theories.
GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT LEARNING
● Learning is a function of physiological
and neurological developmental
changes.
● Brain processing is different for each
learner.
● Learning is active, multifaceted, and
complex.
● Meaningful practice strengthens learning
connections.
● Stress can interfere with or stimulate
learning.
MOTOR LEARNING
➔ Motor learning is useful in addition to
theories of psychological learning.
EXAMPLES OF SKILLS TAUGHT
● Walking
● Putting on a colostomy bag
● Operating sophisticated medical
equipment
STAGES OF MOTOR LEARNING
COGNITIVE Learner works to develop
STAGE cognitive maps.
ASSOCIATIVE More consistent
STAGE performance, slower gains,
fewer errors.
AUTONOMOUS Automatic stage,
STAGE achieving advanced level.
MOTOR LEARNING VARIABLES
● Pre-practice
● Practice
● Feedback
PRE-PRACTICE Motivation, attention, goal
setting, modeling,
demonstrations.
PRACTICE a. Massed vs.
distributed,
b. variability,
c. whole versus part,
d. random vs.
blocked,
e. guidance vs.
discovery learning
FEEDBACK a. Intrinsic (inherent)
feedback – Sensory and
perceptual information that
arises when a movement is
produced.
b. Extrinsic (augmented or
enhanced feedback) –
Provided to the learner
from an outside source
(nurse, biofeedback).
COMMON PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
● Promoting change.
● Relate to what the learner knows and is
familiar with.
● Keep experiences simple, organized,
and meaningful.
● Motivate learners (deprivation, goals,
disequilibrium, needs, tension).
● May need incentives and rewards, but
not always.
● Experiences must be at the appropriate
developmental level.
● Make learning pleasurable, not painful.
● Demonstrate by guidance and
attractive role models.
● Making learning relatively permanent.
● Relate experiences to learners.
● Reinforce behavior.
● Rehearse and practice in a variety of
settings.
● Have the learner perform and give
constructive feedback.
● Make sure interference does not occur
before, during, or after learning.
● Making learning relatively permanent.
● Promote transfer.
● Have learners mediate and act on
experience in some way (visualize,
memory devices, discuss, talk, discuss,
write, motor movement.
 QUIZ FOR MODULE 2 Module 3 - Health Education Process
(Determinants of Learning)

1. Sanctions for misbehaving students make them

learn from their mistakes. CATEGORIES OF LEARNING ACCORDING TO
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Correct answer: Behaviorist Theory
GROWTH is tantamount to the word
“increase” or the
2. Learning the lessons for the sake of
quantitative changes in
examinations by cramming
terms of learning. Growth
simply means the
Correct answer: Information Process acquisition of more
knowledge which often
3. Learners learn from the teacher through her results in maturation, while
teaching strategies. development is the orderly,
dynamic changes in a
learner resulting from a
Correct answer: Social Theory
combination of learning
experience and
4. Is a relatively permanent change in behavior maturation.
as a result of experience as primarily determined
by the environment where the person is situated. DEVELOPMENT represents the qualitative
changes in an individual as
evidenced by their
Correct answer: Social Theory
intellectual, emotional and
physiological capabilities.
5. The students learn actively through group This encompasses the ability
discussions. of the body to function
consistent with growth
Correct answer: Cognitive Theory patterns. Hence, growth
and development are
intertwined or interrelated in
6. The students understand the lessons better by
order to proceed with the
dividing them into subparts. normal maturation process.

Correct answer: Cognitive Theory

FACTORS INFLUENCING INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
7. The learner’s experience is the best teacher.
● Maturation
Correct answer: Cognitive Theory ● Experience
● Learning
8. The child unconsciously imitates the parents’
ways and manners. MATURATION

➔ Refers to the biological changes in

Correct answer: Social Theory
individuals that result from the interaction
of their genetic makeup with the
9. A learner develops a good study habit.
environment.
➔ The genes of an individual provide the
Correct answer: Behaviorist Theory
blueprint for development; the
environment interacts with these genes
10. Students who have been academically
to influence rate and direction of
acknowledged are given rewards.
growth.

Correct answer: Behaviorist Theory

 EXPERIENCE
➔ Refers to observing, encountering or
undergoing changes of individuals which
generally occur in the course of time.
➔ This also involves feelings and emotions
as the learner interacts with the
environment which accumulates in the
body system.
➔ The learner gradually internalizes all
these forming into ideas, assumptions
and inferences explicitly manifested
through behavior change.
LEARNING
➔ The acquisition of knowledge, abilities,
habits, attitudes, values and skills derived
from experiences with varied stimuli.
➔ It is the product of experiences and
goals of education where students are
trained to press for further development.
➔ Learning ranges from simple forms to
more complex activities required and
assimilated, depending on interaction
between the learner’s generic make-up
and the learning environment resulting in
maturation and development.
CHARACTERISTICS AND DEVELOPMENTAL
MILESTONES OF EACH STAGE:
a. Growth and development is a
continuous process from conception till
death.
b. These stages are continuous rather than
discrete hence, a child develops
gradually, visibly and continually.
c. While chronological ages are attached
to stages of growth and development,
the rate at which children pass through
them differs widely, depending on
individual maturation rates and their
culture.
d. While rate varies, all children must pass
through each stage before progressing
to another more complex
developmental stage.
INFANCY
➔ Sensorimotor stage or Practical
Intelligence = (0-1 year)
➔ In the sensorimotor stage, a child first
develops tuning sensory and motor
capacities such as sight and hearing.
➔ This is shown in their reflex behavior in
response to stimulus the infant is in
contact with.
➔ This means that their thinking is limited to
how the world responds to their physical
actions.
➔ An infant has no representations of
objects in memory which literally means
that any object that is *out of sight* is
*out of mind*.
TODDLER
➔ Preconceptual to Preoperational Stage =
(1-3 years)
➔ The preoperational stage is
characterized by perceptual
dominance.
➔ A child who can classify objects into toys
and non-toys performs a mental
operation.
➔ Preoperational stage refers to an
incomplete stage of development.
➔ Many dramatic changes occur in
children as they pass through the
preoperational stage, and a child at the
end of this stage is very different from
one time at the beginning.
a. Language development occurs at this
stage.
b. Toddlers can formulate a number of
concrete concepts.
c. Abstract concepts such as values remain
beyond the grasp of the child’s ability to
understand.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TODDLERS AT THE
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
a. Egocentrism. The child is self-centered
and very concerned with herself. She
refuses to accept someone else’s
opinion and thinks that what she says
and does is the only thing that exists.
Hence, an egocentric child finds it
difficult to understand other points of
view. The child is not yet capable to
envision situations from perspective
other than his capability to envision
situations from perspective other than his
or her own.
b. Use symbols to represent objects. d. Ability to think logically about concrete
c. Draw conclusions from obvious facts they objects hence, they can form
see. conclusions based on reason rather than
d. They are headstrong and negativistic, mere perception alone.
their favorite word is “No”. e. Awareness of past, present and future
e. Active, mobile and curious. time.
f. Rigid, repetitive, ritualistic.
g. Has a poor sense of time. PUBESCENT OR ADOLESCENT

➔ Formal Operational thought = (12-20

PRESCHOOLER
years)
➔ Perceptual Intuitive Through = (3-7 years) a. Adolescents have logical thinking with
➔ The child learns to accommodate more the ability to provide scientific reasoning.
information and change their ideas to fit b. They can be solving hypothetical
reality rather than reasons. problems and casualties.
➔ Their thinking is influenced by the c. Have matured thought.
following:
a. Centration. The tendency of a child to YOUNG ADULTHOOD
focus on one perceptual aspect of an
➔ Intellectual exchange and social
event to the exclusion of all other
transmission. Career-centered = (20-40
aspects.
Years)
b. Non-Transformation. The child is unable
a. Develop philosophy of life.
to mentally record the process of
b. Career, mate and family-centered.
change from one stage to another. Their
c. Dominating influence on the child.
sense of understanding is still not fully
determined as the child is only
concerned with present events. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
c. Irreversibility. The child is unable to ➔ Cooperative relations = (40-60 Years)
mentally trace a line of reasoning back a. Pursues life goals and interests.
to its beginning. The child thinks primarily b. Family and career-centered.
on the basis of their own perception of c. Possesses self-control, stability and
events independence.
d. Reasoning. Perceptual children do not
use inductive or deductive reasoning.
LATE ADULTHOOD
Problem solving is based on what they
see and hear directly rather than what ➔ Absence of any constraining influence =
they recall about objects and events. (60-80 Years)
a. Adjust to loneliness.
b. Partial or dependency in others.
SCHOOL AGE
c. Loss of important persons.
➔ Concrete Operations Stage = (7-12
Years)
SENESCENCE
➔ The school age or the concrete
operations stage marks the ➔ 80 years older
advancement in the child’s ability to a. Adapts to triumphs and disappointments.
think about the world around him. b. Maintains ego integrity.
➔ It is characterized by the child’s:
a. Ability to discover concrete solutions to
everyday problems.
b. Ability to overcome pre-operational
deficiencies.
c. Reasoning tends to be inductive, from
simple to abstract ideas.
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO INCREASED INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
● To help slow learners compensate for
their relative deficiency in learning, there
INTELLIGENCE are a number of methods available to
the teacher including the following:
➔ The teacher’s primarily consideration in
● The teacher’s instructional style or
evaluating the learning needs of her
approach must be adjusted to students’
students is the individual’s capacity to
needs for learning without compromising
acquire knowledge, ability to think,
the topic requirements for the course to
abstract reasoning and capability in
be finished;
problem solving which is explained by
● Support of fast learners in involved in
the following:
helping the slow learners through peer
● Intelligence is determined by genetics
tutoring and group activities;
and environment.
● Clarify and expand explanation of the
● Intelligence is measured based on the
subject matter before having students
results on intelligence tests or aptitude
attempt to ask on their own;
tests.
● Break lengthy assignments into shorter
● Students with high aptitude need less
segments; and
time and less instructional support.
● Provide frequent feedback as students
➔ The teacher can adjust and adapt
work through news materials.
instructional approaches considering the
differences in students’ ability as follows:
STRATEGIC INSTRUCTION
● Flexible time requirements
● Increased instructional support ● Research shows that student achievers
● Strategy Instruction are more likely to use strategies that
● Peer tutoring make their learning more effective.
● Cooperative Learning ● These strategic learners analyze and
break down task and problems into
FLEXIBLE TIME REQUIREMENTS smaller units and formulate solutions to
task and problems systematically.
● An indicator of intellectual differences of
● They are also able to differentiate
learning for individuals is the time
important concepts from the less
requirement to grasp the subject
important.
comprehensively well.
● Strategic learners employ strategies in
● This is equated with the students’ rate of
order for them to work efficiently and
growth and their readiness to learn.
effectively to make their task easier.
● Some students learn faster than the
others, hence, a teacher should design a
PEER TUTORING
teaching strategy that will address
students’ time requirements in terms of ● This is said that student achievers are
learning. more equipped with the necessary
● To facilitate the process, a teacher may knowledge and skills in facing
follow slow learners to work on challenges for learning.
alternative activities to provide more ● They can serve as sources of information
time for instruction. for less able students.
● On the other hand, the teacher may
design extra activities for fast learners COOPERATIVE LEARNING
such as free reading time, related
● Studies showed that students who tutor
learning experiences, computer activities
less able students even benefit more
and other self-enchanting activities.
than the less able students.
● These activities can further enhance the
● Student tutors are able to recall their
students’ knowledge and skills in the
knowledge in tutoring and further
subject matter.
 enhance their skills and skills LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL
demonstration.
● Students who have high
● Student tutors are able to enhance their
logical-mathematical intelligence are
social skills during cooperative learning
good in:
activities.
● Logical reasoning
● Abstractions
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
● Inductive and Deductive reasoning and
➔ The theory of multiple intelligences was numbers
proposed by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard SPATIAL
University.
● This type of intelligence has to do with
➔ The theory states that the traditional
vision and spatial judgement.
concepts of intelligence, based on I.Q.
● People with strong visual-spatial
testing is far too limited.
intelligence are good in the following:
➔ He, thus, proposed eight different
● Visual and mental manipulation of
intelligences:
objects
● Visual Memory
Verbal – linguistic “word smart” ● Arts
intelligence
● Geographic Directions

Logical – mathematical “number/reasoni

intelligence ng smart” BODILY KINESTHETIC

Spatial intelligence “picture smart” ● This intelligence has something to do with

movement.
Bodily – Kinesthetic “body smart” ● Individuals with this intelligence excel in:
intelligence
● Sports
● Dance
Musical intelligence “music smart”
● Other activities related to movement
Interpersonal Intelligence “people smart” ● This individual has good muscle memory.

Intrapersonal Intelligence “self-smart”

MUSICAL
Naturalistic Intelligence “nature Smart”
● Musical intelligence has to do with music,

Other Intelligences music composition, rhythm, and hearing.

VERBAL-LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
● “Word Smart”.
● Verbal-linguistic intelligence has to do
with words, spoken or written.
● Individuals with verbal-linguistic
intelligence display a facility with words
and languages and are typically good
at:
● Reading
● Writing
● Telling Stories and
● Word Memorization
● They learn best by reading, taking notes,
listening to lectures, discussion and
debate.
● One learners vest with music playing in
the background and may use songs in
memorizing information.
● Individuals with high musical intelligence
are good in:
● Singing
● Musical Composition
● Playing musical Instruments
INTERPERSONAL
● People who have high interpersonal
intelligence are good at interacting with
others.
● They are usually introverts sensitive to
other’s needs, feelings, interests and
motivations.
● They learn best from group work and
activities.
● They are good in:
● Communication
● Leadership
● Negotiations
● Politics
INTRAPERSONAL
● Intrapersonal intelligence has to do with
introspective and self-reflective
capacities.
● They learn best when allowed to
concentrate on the subject by
themselves and have a high level of
perfectionism.
● They are usually good in:
● Psychology
● Analysis
● Philosophy
● Theology
NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE
● This intelligence has to do with nature,
nurturing and relating information to
one’s natural surroundings.
● Individuals with this type of intelligence
have great sensitivity to nature and the
environment.
● It covers metaphysics, the origin and
essence of things, the nature of man,
among others.
● They are usually good in:
● Botany
● Zoology
● Metaphysics
● Ontology
● Astronomy
● Environmental Science
● Other Intelligences include spiritual,
existential and moral intelligence.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
➔ Emotional Intelligence is a combination
of competencies.
➔ This skill contributes to an individual’s
capability to manage and monitor his or
her emotions, to correctly gauge the
emotional state of others and to
influence opinions.
a. Self-awareness is the ability to recognize
one’s own feelings as this happens, to
accurately perform self-assessment and
have self-confidence. It is the keystone
of emotional intelligence.
b. Self-Management or Self-Regulation is
the ability to keep disruptive emotions
and impulses in check (self-control),
maintain standards of honesty and
integrity, take responsibility for one’s
performance, handle change and be
comfortable with novel ideas and
approaches.
c. Motivation is the emotional tendency of
guiding or facilitating the attainment
goals through:
● Achievement drive to meet a standard
of excellence
● Commitment or the alignment of goals
with the group or organization
● Initiative to act an opportunity
● Optimism or the persistence to reach
goals despite set-backs
d. Empathy is the understanding of others
by being aware of their needs,
perspectives, feelings, concerns, and
sensing others developmental needs.
e. Social Skills are fundamental to
emotional intelligence. They include:
● Influence, or the ability to induce
desirable responses in other through
effective diplomacy of persuading
● Communication or the ability to both
listen openly and send convincing
messages
● Leadership, or the ability to inspire and
guide groups and individuals
● Building bonds, or nurturing instrumental
relationships
● Collaboration and cooperation with
others toward a shared goal
● Create group synergy, the ability to
pursue collective goals
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES)
➔ Socioeconomic Status is a measure of a
family’s position in society as determined
by family income, its member’s
occupation, and level of education.
➔ SES affects learning both at home and in
school.
➔ Poverty affects a learner’s well-being
and quality of life.
➔ This in return affects the students’
concentration, learning potentials,
 motivation, interests, and participation in stereotyping somehow has a
class. subconscious effect on students.
● Female students who have the potential
CULTURE in the field of mathematics may be
unable to explore their potential due to
➔ Culture refers to attitudes, values,
the belief that females are not as good
customs, and behavior patterns that
as males when it comes to numbers.
characterize a social group.
● It is important for the teacher to design
➔ Like SES, culture also influences school
his or her teaching strategy with careful
success, through the students’ attitudes
consideration of providing equal learning
and values and ways of viewing the
opportunities regardless of student
world that are held and transmitted by a
gender.
culture.
➔ Culture influences the following:
AT-RISK STUDENTS
a. Students’ attitudes and values - To
become a good student, one must be ➔ At risk students are those in danger of
able to adapt to the cultural values failing to complete their education.
imposed by the school as a learning ➔ They have learning problems and
institution. This is often based on its adjustment difficulties.
mission, vision, and objectives and goals ➔ They often fail even though they have
whether is secular or non-secular the capability to succeed.
institution.
b. Classroom Organization - In most MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
classrooms, students work and learn
1. Deficiency needs
individually. Emphasis is placed on
- Deficiency needs are those needs whose
individual responsibility, which is often
absence energizes or moves people to
reinforced by grades and competition.
meet them. Until a lower need is met, an
Competition demands both successes
individual is unlikely to move to a higher
and failures, and the success of one
need.
student is tied to the failure of another.
2. Growth needs
c. School Communication - Cultural conflict
- Growth needs are needs “met” as they
in communication may occur in an
expand and grow as people have
institution with students from diverse
experience with them. Growth needs
ethnicities. Communication signals may
acquire people to indulge in activities
not always have the same meaning to
that are physically and psychologically
another student of a different ethnicity.
stimulating and enhances strength and
vigor to proceeds to a higher-level task.
GENDER DIFFERENCES

a. Different treatment of Boys and Girls IMPLICATIONS OF THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS TO

● From the day they were born, male and EDUCATION
female babies are treated differently. A
a. Impoverished students who are unable
baby girl is handled more delicately
to meet their basic needs such as food
while a baby boy is seen as tougher and
and enough rest tend to have
more hardy. In regard to discipline,
diminished motivation to learn.
fathers are tougher and physical with
b. Students who have a low sense of
their sons compared to their daughters
security tend to achieve less that those
whom they tend to discipline verbally.
who have a high sense of security.
b. Stereotyping Boys and Girls
c. Growth needs energize and direct
● This gender-based treatment extends up
student learning.
to the child’s school years. Males are
d. True motivation for learning develops
considered better in Mathematics while
only when students see the relationship
females are better in English. This
between what they are learning and
 their primary goals on rewards and 4 TYPES OF READINESS TO LEARN
punishments.
P = PHYSICAL Measures of ability
READINESS Complexity of task
OTHER LEARNING NEEDS
Environmental effects
● The Need for Competence Health status
a. Competence motivation is an innate Gender
need in human beings
E = EMOTIONAL Anxiety level
b. Competence motivation creates drive in
READINESS Support system
oneself to master tasks and enhance Motivation
skills Risk-taking behavior
c. Competence motivation is essential in Frame of mind
coping with the fast-changing Developmental stage
environment
E = EXPERIENTIAL Level of aspiration
● The need for control and
READINESS Past coping mechanisms
self-determination Cultural background
a. As stated in the bible, man is a steward Locus of control
to God’s creation. Hence, there is need Orientation
for control
K = KNOWLEDGE Present knowledge base
b. Man, continuously strives for
READINESS Cognitive ability
competence and autonomy
Learning disabilities
c. Teachers may satisfy a student’s need for Learning styles
control by encouraging inputs such as
opinions, suggestions, and criticism,
LEARNING STYLES
among others, during class lectures or
discussions. ➔ Learning style refers to the ways
● The need to achieve individuals process information (Guild &
a. Achievement motivation is the drive to Garger, 1998).
excel in learning tasks to experience ➔ Each learner is unique and complex, with
pride in accomplishment. a distinct learning style preference that
b. The need to achieve is balanced by the distinguishes one learner from another.
need to avoid failure ➔ The learning style models are based on
c. Students with a high need to avoid the premise that certain characteristics
failure tend to avoid challenging tasks. of the style are biological in origin,
d. Students with a high need for whereas others are sociologically
achievement tend to be motivated by developed as a result of environmental
challenging assignments, high grading influences.
standards, explicit feedback and the ➔ Recognizing that people have different
opportunity to try to face challenges in approaches to learning helps the nurse
life e. Students who do not want to fail educator to understand the various
are motivated by simple assignments, educational interests and needs of
liberal grading, and protection from diverse populations.
embarrassment due to failure.

6 LEARNING STYLE PRINCIPLES

➔ Six principles have emerged from

research about learning styles.
➔ To develop these six principles, Friedman
and Alley (1984) reviewed an enormous
volume of literature, which included
more than 30 different learn- ing style
instruments.
➔ The six principles are described next (the
reference to “student” can be
 interpreted as any learner who is the to learning will not suffice if they are to
recipient of teaching): reach their fullest potential. Without
1. Both the style by which the teacher encouragement, learners tend to
prefers to teach and the style by which automatically gravitate to using their
the student prefers to learn can be preferred style of learning. The more
identified. Identification of different styles frequently learners are exposed to
offers specific clues as to the way a different methods of learning, the less
person learns. By understanding one’s stressful those methods will be in future
own learning style, the educator can learning situations.
appreciate why it may be easier to help 6. Teachers can develop specific learning
one style of the learner to master activities that reinforce each modality or
information but more difficult to work style. Nurse educators must become
with another learner who needs an aware of various methods and materials
entirely different approach to learning. available to address and augment the
2. Teachers need to guard against over different learning styles. To be effective,
teaching by their own preferred learning educational strategies should be geared
styles. Nurse educators need to realize toward different learning styles, because
that just because they gravitate to using only a limited number of
learning a certain way, it does not mean approaches will selectively exclude
that everyone else can or wants to learn many learners.
this way. It is much easier for the
educator to change the teaching 4 TYPES OF COMBINATIONS OF MODES IN TERMS
approach than for the learner to adapt OF LEARNING STYLES
to the teacher’s style.
(1) Visual learners: learn best by seeing
3. Teachers are most helpful when they
flashcards, visual images, matching
assist students in identifying and learning
games, pictures, and diagrams, puzzles,
through their own style preferences.
watching someone do something,
Making learners aware of their individual
printed material, charts, pictures, posters,
style preferences will lead to an
wall strips, desk tapes, videotapes,
understanding of which
computer programs.
teaching–learning approaches work best
(2) Auditory learners: learn best by hearing
for them. Also, an awareness of their
audio, lectures, educational songs, and
preference for a particular learning style
rhymes, rhythm instruments, recitation,
sensitizes learners to the fact that
singing, and reading aloud.
whatever style is most comfortable for
(3) Kinesthetic learners: learn best by doing
them may not be the best approach for
and touching, long nature walks, model
others.
kits, yard work, gardening, textured
4. Students should have the opportunity to
puzzles and manipulatives, typing
learn through their preferred style. The
instead of writing, drama, dance, lab
nurse educator can provide the means
experiments, building models.
by which each learner can experience
(4) Social learners: learn best by interacting
successful learning. Visual learners, for
with others, one-on-one conversations,
example, should be given movies,
discussions, group participation.
computer simulations, and videos from
which to learn rather than insisting that
they read. Concrete and abstract
thinkers need to capitalize on their
strengths; concrete thinkers need facts,
whereas abstract thinkers need theories.
5. Students should be encouraged to
diversify their style preferences. Today,
learners are constantly faced with
learning situations where one approach
 HEALTH EDUCATION PROCESS
➔ Evaluating a Health Education Plan
EVALUATION
➔ Evaluation is the process that can
provide evidence that what we do as
nurses and as nurse educators makes a
value-added difference in the care we
provide.
➔ Evaluation is defined as a systematic
process by which the worth or value of
something in this case, teaching and
learning- is judged.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING AN EVALUATION
1. Determining the focus of the evaluation,
including use of evaluation models;
2. Designing the evaluation;
3. Conducting the evaluation;
4. Determining methods of analysis and
interpretation of data collected;
5. Reporting results of data collected; and
6. Using evaluation results.
SUMMATIVE
➔ The assessment of outcome evaluation.
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE RELATED TO HEALTH
EDUCATION
➔ Evidence based practice (EBP) or
Evidence based is 'the integration of best
research evidence with clinical expertise
and patient values' which when applied
by practitioners will ultimately lead to
improved patient outcome.
➔ Best evidence which is usually found in
clinically relevant research that has
been conducted.
➔ Clinical expertise refers to the clinician's
cumulated education, experience and
clinical skill.
➔ Patient values which are the unique
preferences, concerns and expectations
each patient brings to a clinical
encounter.
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
➔ May be described as "a lifelong
problem-solving approach to clinical
practice that integrates ... the most
relevant and best research, ... one's own
clinical expertise ... and patient
preferences and values".
PRACTICE-BASED PRACTICE
➔ Comprises internal evidence that can be
used both to identify whether a problem
exists and to determine whether an
intervention effectively resolved a
problem.
➔ Put another way, practice-based
evidence can be equally useful for
assessment and for evaluation.
PROCESS (FORMATIVE) EVALUATION
➔ The purpose of process or formative
evaluation is to make adjustments in an
educational activity as soon as they are
needed, whether those adjustments
involve personnel, materials, facilities,
learning objectives, or even the
educator's own attitude.
THE 5 STEPS
1. Formulate an answerable question.
● Formulating an answerable question to
focus your efforts specifically on what
matters.
● EX. questions about the diagnosis,
therapy, prognosis or etiology.
2. Find the best available evidence.
● The second step is to find the relevant
evidence; selecting resources in which to
perform your search such as PubMed
and Cochrane Library; and formulating
an effective search strategy.
3. Appraise the evidence.
● Use a simple critical appraisal method
that will answer these questions: What
question did the study address? Were
the methods valid? What are the results?
How do the results apply to your
practice?
4. Implement the evidence.
● Combining the best available evidence
with your clinical expertise and your
patients values.
● These clinical decisions should then be
implemented into your practice which
can then be justified as evidence based.
5. Evaluate the outcome.
● The final step in the process is to
evaluate the effectiveness and efficacy
of your decision indirect relation to your
patient.
● Acquire
● Appraise
● Apply
● Audit