SECOND EXAM: Aerospace Technology

2.5 Aircraft’s systems

System is a group of interrelated entities that form a unified whole. A system is delineated by its spatial and
temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and
expressed in its functioning. Problems are difficult to solve in a middle of a flight. There exist a wide number of
systems in aircrafts.

Redundancy is everywhere: fault tolerance, multiple suppliers, multiple operating principles, common modes of
failures are available. Redundancy is expensive.

2.5.1 Landing gear

Landing gear or undercarriage is an essential part of the aircraft. Allows the movement on ground (taxiing, runaway
run…), dampens the landing impact, allows to brake the aircraft during landing, keeps the aircraft safe on ground in
situations of strong wind. Two main kinds:

- Conventional: main gear at the front and a wheel or skid at the tail. Requires complex manoeuvres during
take-off and landing. On ground, the front wheels are used to manoeuvre. It is possible to turn over the
aircraft while braking. Huge angles of attacks while landing. Uncomfortable taxiing on ground, unstable
because centre of gravity at back you don’t see the jets.
- Tricycle: nose gear at front and main gear at rear. Easier to land and take-off. Higher dynamic loads during
landing, leading to possible impacts. On ground manoeuvres may be achieved: by applying brakes, rotating
nose gear and rotating main gear (strange). Stable when braking. It is needed to reinforce the fuselage
cause to loads. Avoids problems of stability.
- Other kinds of landing gear:
o Tandem: difficult to take off and land. It may be useful for aircraft with large aspect ratio or non-
conventional capabilities. Doesn’t allow to turn.
o Ejectable gears
o Multiple gears

In the supports there can be found several arrangements: simple wheel, multiple wheels, skids, floating landing gear,
etc.

Geometrical parameters:

- Tread(vía): distance among supports of main gear. Lateral stability (ground loop).
- Wheel base (batalla): distance among the main landing gear and the nose or tail one. Main landing gear and
support.

The projection of centre of gravity on ground must fall between supports.

Additional considerations: it is important not only to ensure that the centre of gravity is between supports. It must
ensure that:

- Tail does not impact the ground when rotating.

- The wingtips, propeller blades and engines do not touch ground.
- The taxiing velocity must not be excessive, or tires will explode.
- All previous capabilities must be ensured with an appropriate damping.

There is not much room for redundancy.

Damping system:

- No shock absorber: only springs (tire and support ac as springs). Cheap, only light and poor performance.
- Rubber disks: slight damping, heavier. Poor performance but better than the one before.
- Oleo pneumatic: good performance but more complex. Consist of a piston with: air (spring), oil (damper)
and tires (spring).
Retraction: usually achieved through hydraulic power. Landing gear is usually stored within the fuselage.
Compartment is closed during cruise to reduce drag.

Formed by: Hydraulic actuator, hinge mechanism, strut with oleo pneumatic shock absorber, wheel axis, wheel.

2.5.2 Fuel system

Multiple ways of storing fuel in an aircraft:

- Bladder tanks (depósitos flexibles): used in small general aircraft, small turboprop aircraft, helicopters… Not
used as structural elements. When you have no other option.
- Rigid removable tanks: used in small general aircraft, or military aircraft if they are self-sealing. They may be
removed easily for inspection or repairs. Not used as structural elements.
- Integral tanks: also called wet wing. Fuel is within the wing’s torsion box. They are part of the wing
structure. Also, in stabilizer, fuselage… Have extra difficulties such as rivets or bolts. Very attractive and
used (reduced structural weight and take good profit of space). Fuel close to the wing root is consumed first
then the tail tank and there are auxiliary tanks.
- Tip tanks (depósitos de punta alar): structural weight advantages as integral tanks.
- External tanks: sometimes are ejectable.

Fuel system must also have pumps and valves to move the fuel. In case of a pump failure, the fuel moves by gravity.

Vents (respiradores): In flight they allow to enter the tanks while fuel is consumed. During refuelling, allow air to
leave tanks while they are filled.

In some cases, thanks may be used to trim (balance) the aircraft. Very useful in supersonic aircraft as the
aerodynamic centre is displaced when flying in supersonic regime. In supersonic the aerodynamic centre moves in
order to reduce pitching moment.

In-flight refuelling with a tanker aircraft:

- Probe and drogue (manguera flexible): easier and slower.

- Boom (pértiga): requires an operator, allows faster refuelling.

Internal combustion engines:

- Carburettor: Automatic. Inaccurate control of air-fuel mixture and ice formation.

- Injector-pump and injector: accurate control of fuel injection, less possibilities of ice formation, reduction of
emissions and fuel consumption.

Reaction engines (jet engines): always injection.

Kinds of fuel:

- High octane aviation gasolines: internal combustion.

- Reaction engines (jet engines):
1. Civil aviation (JET A or JER B for cold climates). Made of kerosene and derivatives.
2. Military (JP-8).
- Synthetic and no petrol derivatives, like biofuels. Others like rocket engines…

2.5.3 Hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical

The hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical power systems allow to move different elements on the aircraft: aileron
deflection, rudder and elevator deflection, high lift devices deflection, extension and retraction of landing gear, etc.
they are usually systems with high levels of redundancy such as triple hydraulic circuits.

- Hydraulic power: According to Pascal’s law: any modification in pressure of an incompressible fluid locked in
steady conditions is transmitted to all its parts. Increasing the pressure in a part of hydraulic circuit, is
 possible to equally increase it in other parts of it. This effect may be used as a force or torque multiplier
(similar to a lever).

They are very compact systems considering the high force they transmit. A basic system consists of a tank or
reservoir, a pump (mechanically driven by the engine, an electrical motor or manually), a filter, relief valve,
selector valve, actuator and pipes.

The hydraulic fluid must:

o Have high flash point (punto de inflamabilidad).
o Low freezing point and very high evaporation one.
o Serve as lubricant for pumps, valves and actuator. Low viscosity at low temperature but not too low
at high temperature, so low effect of temperature on viscosity
o Serve as refrigerant in order to be able to absorb and transmit heat easily and to be thermally
stable.
o Anticorrosion properties.

Fluids used nowadays tend to attack the natural rubber, many plastic and paints. Typical fluids use:
skydrol, hyjet, aeroshell.

- Pneumatic power: similar systems to hydraulic power ones. For same system weight, loads that are
generated are lower than the ones with hydraulic systems. Less dangerous in case of leakages. Usually used
as alternative system in case of failure of hydraulic pumps or hydraulic fluid leakages: redundancy, trying to
avoid common modes of failure.
- Electrical power: High weight/load ratio. May be used as complement to others: motorization of pneumatic
and hydraulic pumps. Electrical power is produced through generators coupled to aircraft engines. Usually
work at 400 Hz instead of the 50/60 Hz typical on ground.

Command transmission to actuators:

- cranks, push and wires

- fly-by-wire: convert actuation into voltage with a simple cable, less weight, more precise and more
maintenance. For more redundancy you just need more cables.
- fly-by-light: optical fibre (fragile, more expensive the sensitive elements that transmit the signal).

It there is no direct connection with flight controls, there is an artificial feel system or force feedback system (para
que notes los movimientos del avión, igual que el volante se endurece para sentir la curva que realiza el coche)

In case of engine failure: aircraft has Auxiliary Power Unit (APU, Unidad de Potencia Auxiliar). This is usually a
turboshaft or internal combustion engine.

Used to: turn on the engines a supply power when they are switched off, as an emergency generator system in case
engine failure.
It is also common to have batteries, hydraulic accumulators and Ram Air Turbine (RAT, turbina de aire de impacto)
in case APU does not work.

2.5.4 Cabin air conditioning

At high altitudes: low temperatures, low pressure (oxygen partial pressure too low).

At 18 km of altitude: Armstrong line, water boils at human body temperature.

It is necessary to control temperature, humidity and quality of air (pollutants):

- Vapor cycles: air conditioning system where just temperature is controlled

- Air cycle: pressure is also controlled.

The source to pressurize in a continued manner is air bled from the engines, increasing its specific fuel consumption.
Only in strange occasion, electrical compressors are used.

The location of the refrigeration and air conditioning can be:

- In wings (large aircrafts)

- Fuselage (small aircraft),
- Multiple units: if it is a very big aircraft.

There are several advantages if pressurization level is low, but it is worse for passengers and crew. The minimum
level stablished by regulations (FAA, EASA…) is 75 kPa as the minimum pressure (equivalent toa cabin altitude of
8000 ft – 2500 m). The humidity is not controlled.

The air bled from the engine is refrigerated variably with the impact air attracted from outside. Refrigeration level is
controlled with a TDV (Thermal Discharged Valve).

- If valve is closed, more refrigeration (low altitude)

- If it is open, less refrigeration (high altitude).

A turbine drives the fan that moves the impact air. About half of the cabin air is filtered and reintroduced, the other
half is dumped through an external valve, in the lower side of the fuselage. Air is renewed every 2-3 minutes.

2.5.5: Flight instruments

Types:

- Instrumental flight systems: ensure a safe flight in conditions of low visibility (IFR) or to facilitate the flight
in visual conditions.
- VFR (Visual Flight Rules) do not allow to flight without visibility.

Most important instruments:

- Altimeter: It estimates the altitude by measuring the pressure and comparing it with the ISA model,
commonly corrected during flight. Do not confuse with radioaltimeter.
- Airspeed indicator: by comparing the cinematic pressure with a Pitot sensor. Obtains the indicated air
speed (IAS) and it must be corrected to obtain the true air speed (TAS).
- Variometer: by using the pressure variation it estimates the variation in altitude. How much the aircraft is
going up
- Compass: It makes use of the magnetic earth field to indicate the direction of the flight.
- Inclinometer: It uses the gravity and the lateral acceleration to compensate the turns.

All those previous systems do not require any electrical source. They use pressure sensing elements (either static or
pitot), the magnetic field or gravity.

- Artificial horizon: Indicates the attitude of an aircraft by combining the measurement of several gyroscopes.
 - Heading indicator: Makes use of gyroscopes to provide the pilot with a measurement of the heading.
- Turn and slip indicator: Makes use of gyroscopes and the inclinometer to provide a visual recognisance of
the rolling angle evolution

Instruments on the ground:

- VOR: It is used to have a precise directional measurement of a beacon in a given position of the map.
- NDB (Non Directional Beacon): It is used to receive a signal from a non-directional beacon in the ground
- DME: It indicates the distance to a given point in the ground.
- ILS: Different from PAPI, that is only a visual aid. It helps the pilot during landing by comparing its glide path
with the optimal one.

2.5.6: Communication, autopilot and others

Radio: the basic system of communications for aircrafts.

The communication is performed at various ranges of frequencies. The aeronautic band (Airband) uses frequencies
in the VHF, normally called as Victor, modulated by amplitude (AM). In almost all the world a license is mandatory
for using it. It is used for communication between aircrafts, radio help and aerial traffic control. It uses the specific
alphabet determined by the OACI.

There is also the possibility of using other communications like satellite or HF range, but only in some remote areas
where VHF is not used

Transponder: If aircrafts are flying in controlled areas. The transponder answers automatically with information of
identification and location of the aircraft (attitude, speed, inclination…) when being asked by a secondary
surveillance radar (SSR).

TCAS (traffic collision avoidance system): To avoid collisions. The system automatically detects collision danger and
sends the actions to each of the aircraft by some programmed rules. It does not depend on any external station. The
pilot might decide either to follow the instructions of the TCAS or to do a different action (air traffic control).

Automatic Dependence Dystem of Durveillance-broadcast (ADS-B): detect the position of the aircraft via satellite
and sends the information in broadcast. It complements the systems primary and secondary of radar efficiently and
with a low cost, however it might be easily saturated if many users request information

Autopilot systems: use to help the pilot in the guidance and control of the aircraft. They are used to make easier the
flight for the crew at cruise conditions or landing. Also, to correct or to alert the pilot when estrange manoeuvres are
taking place. A manual operation is always required for flights with people.

2.6 Propulsive systems

Propulsive systems can be divided between those which use the atmosphere (non-autonomous) or those which use
its own reaction mass (autonomous).

Non-autonomous propulsion systems can be defined as:

Propulsive system increases energy of a given flow from atmosphere.

As reaction of that variation in energy, atmosphere pushes propulsive system.

If trust due to pressure variation is neglected, inlet speed of the

flow needs to be accelerated to a higher value in order to provide thrust to propulsion system. The required thrust
can be provided either with a high-speed flow variation with a low admitted flow or with a higher mass flow and a

A higher efficiency can be achieved with a lower speed gradient but a

higher mass flow (less kinetic energy delivered to the atmosphere).

There are two types of propulsion:

- Propeller propulsion (high mass flow and low speed variations, mainly caused by quantity of movement
variation and highly efficient at low speed but not possible at high speed)
- Jet propulsion (less mass flow, effect of pressure is significant and suitable for flying at high speeds).

There are two parameter that define the behaviour of a propulsive system:

- Specific consumption: ratio between the power provided by propulsion system (in case of propeller) or
thrust (in case of a jet) and its weight. If that value is higher, means that the propulsive system needs more
fuel for keeping aircraft flying at a given aerodynamic efficiency.

- Specific impulse: thrust generated by the engine divided by the fuel consumption (opposite than specific
fuel consumption).

The optimal propulsive system highly depends on the mission: weight and size of
aircraft, maximum thrust, cruise speed, fuel available, production and maintenance cost. In general, the propulsive
system is chosen in order to minimize the specific consumption or to maximize the specific impulse.

2.6.1 Propeller propulsion:

Propeller works as a small rotating wing deflecting air mass flow to back in order to increase its speed and obtaining
thrust as consequence. To turn the blades, it is possible to use electrical, reciprocating, or turbine engines. The
transonic regime at blades characterize its maximum flight speeds: Mach 0.7.

- Electrical engines: the main problem of is the storage of electrical energy. The efficiency of converting
electrical energy to a propeller has a high efficiency associated, however the energy density of batteries is
low, leading to an unaffordable weight in big aircrafts. 1kg of fuel contains the same energy than 70-80 kg at
last generation batteries LiPo. They are used in small, unmanned aircrafts.
- Reciprocating engines: like those used in automotive vehicles. Most of them are Spar Ignited Engines
(gasolines), but some compression ignited engines (diesel) can be also found. Energy of fuel is delivered
when burning the fuel in a combustion chamber with variable geometry. This energy is transmitted to the
propeller by a rod mechanism.
 - Turbine engines (turboprop): are based on continuous flow combustion with specific fuels derived from
kerosene (typically Jet-A). the energy delivered by fuel is profited by a turbine which moves the propeller.
Not all the energy at the turbine is used by the propeller, as it also moves de compressor which does the
suction at the intake and provides the air with sufficient pressure for an efficient combustion. Although they
might be less efficient than reciprocating engines, they are much lighter.

2.6.2 Jet propulsion

When an aircraft is flying at such speeds than the propeller suffers from transonic effects, its efficiency rapidly falls
down. It is also possible to accelerate the flow internally in the engine by a thermodynamic cycle. These engines use
to dispose from: diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, propulsion nozzle.

Flow is accelerated the propulsion

- convergent (subsonic cases)

- convergent-divergent (supersonic cases).

Turbofan engines: are something in between a turboprop (turbine) and a turbojet engine, by using some part of the
flow getting accelerated at an inner propeller (fan) and the rest at the nozzle. High efficiencies are commonly
achieved by using a higher derivation rate (more flow delivered to the fan). When flying over the speed of sound,
the derived flow at the fan starts being useless due to the difficulties in increasing the speed of the aircraft. At this
point only the core is maintained with the so named turbojet engine.

Turbojets are less efficient, but they were developed before turboprops. Sometimes (only when some overshot is
required in military applications) a post-injection is applied for increasing the final thrust (but reducing considerably
the overall efficiency).

At supersonic airspeed, it is possible to boost the intake air mass flow without movable surfaces, by using the shock
waves at the diffusor to increase the pressure. Such engine is composed only from a diffuser, combustion chamber
and a nozzle. That type of engines is quite simple and although its efficiency is quite low, they can provide that
aircraft with trust at various speed conditions. That type of engines might be differenced in:

- Ramjet: combustion happens at subsonic speeds

- Scramjet combustion takes place at supersonic flows

Autonomous engine: do not use atmosphere to react with the fuel. In that cases, the autonomous propulsive system
is named rocket. The rocket has a low specific impulse, as it requires that all the mass is carried during the
combustion, and not only the fuel. They are suitable for all range of Mach number from almost 0 to high Mach
numbers.
3.1 Launch vehicles
3.1.1 Introduction

Launch vehicles are used to put in orbit other vehicles or to help them to leave the gravitational attraction of the
earth. Most of launch vehicles have been developed from ballistic missiles. Launch vehicles are used to gain altitude
above the Kármán line (100 km of altitude), leaving the atmosphere. All of them consist of diverse rocket propulsive
systems.

The Kármán line defines the frontier between the atmosphere and the external space (defined by the FAI,
Federation Aeronautique Internationale). At such distance it is not possible to generate sufficient lift by aerodynamic
forces, also drag is neglected. The weight is compensated by the centrifugal force created by rotation around the
earth. There are other definitions of the space frontier: such as 50 miles (around 80 km) for the USAF.

3.1.2 The rocket equation

The rocket equation is only valid for a propulsive operation which is almost instantaneous and only the weight
variation is considered. Such impulsive thrust can be described by:

This equation is known as Classical rocket equation, ideal rocket equation or Tsiolkovsky equation. Tsiolkovsky was
the first one that applied the equation to orbital problems.

The mass ratio value is defined by the quantity of fuel, the payload and the structure.

The specific impulse of the propulsive systems characterizes how much speed is achieved with a given quantity of
fuel mass.

This equation is only valid at impulsive manoeuvres. The thrust should be applied almost instantaneously, leading to
a differential acceleration that can be represented by an instantaneous speed variation

3.1.3 Orbital equations

As a first assumption, the earth can be considered as a Newtonian gravitational field with a punctual mass in the
centre. For launching space vehicles, the earth can be considered the only gravitational field influencing the vehicle.
The orbital problem can be described in energetic terms, where the main sources of energy are kinetic energy and
gravitational energy. The orbital energy of the vehicle can be described by:

To swith from a ground orbit 𝜖0 to a higher one 𝜖1:

The mission of the launch vehicles consists in:

 The propulsive system increases the speed of the vehicle with an impulsive manoeuvre
 The kinetic energy is converted in potential energy gaining altitude and reaching the desired orbit

When launching the vehicles at the ground, the kinetic energy of the earth can be profited by using locations near
the equator (Fi -> 0). At the sea level in a location near the equator the velocity of the earth is approximately 463
m/s.

To increase the energy from the initial point 𝜖0 to the final point 𝜖1, it is mandatory to produce some increase in
speed 𝛥v by a rocket engine.
Furthermore, if a circumferential orbit is desired around the earth, the velocity at the new orbit is expected to be:

The launch vehicles calculations are corrected in order to compensate the:

 Aerodynamic friction at the atmosphere (aerodynamic drag). Aerodynamic drag is especially critical at the
first stages of the launching.
 Variation of gravity during the impulse manoeuvre. This additional thrust required is also known as gravity
drag.

Commonly both terms can be estimated with an additional 𝛥v, which accounts to approximately 2 km/s.

Most of launching vehicles use to invest most of the fuel after the atmosphere is overcome (near or above the
Kármán line) to avoid high velocities at the atmosphere and reduce then the aerodynamic drag. At each stage, the
impulsive manoeuvre use to last several minutes of acceleration and ascension.

Some of the theoretical speed increases required (neglecting aerodynamic and gravity drags) to achieve different
orbits are:

 7,7 km / s to obtain a low earth orbit (LEA).

 Around 10,3 km/s to achieve a geostationary orbit (36000 km)
 10,7 km/s to orbit at a similar distance than the moon (384402 km from the centre of the earth).

The most expensive part is leaving the first km of attraction and achieving sufficient speed to start orbiting.

The required 𝛥v is function of the mass ratio (fuel mass/ total mass). It grows rapidly as the required Δ𝑣 increases:

3.1.4 Type of rockets

Chemical rockets

Liquid fuel:

Advantages:

 The thrust can be modulated by dosing the quantity of fuel and oxidiser in the combustion chamber.
 Higher Isp.

Drawbacks:

 Less dense: a higher Volume is required.

 Turbomachinery is required to pump the fuel and the oxidiser

The combustion is mad at gaseous phase

Solid fuel

Advantages:

 Easier and most safe

 Stable (It can be stored for decades)
 Higher density: reduced volume

Drawbacks:

 Once started, the combustion cannot be stopped (with exceptions).

 The thrust follows a predefined law given by the shape of the fuel.
 Lower Isp.

The Thrust laws depend on the transversal shape of the fuel: The thrust is proportional to the instantaneous area
burned.

Typical solid propellers

Composed commonly by a fuel, a base and an oxidiser.

 The base use to join the oxidiser and the fuel, it use to be quite energetic, and sometimes no fuel is required.
Hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) or polybutadiene acrylonitrile copolymer (APCP) are commonly
used.
 The fuel is commonly a combination between aluminium dust (high energy) and the base (low energy).
 The Oxidiser use to be ammonia perchlorate.
 Sometimes some catalysers can be also found, such as thermite oxidants.

Common values of specific impulse are 𝐼sp ≃ 180 − 275 s (depends on the mixture).

The main reaction products are water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and metallic oxides (basically alumina).
Hydrogen chloride in contact with water creates hydrochloric acid which is extremely dangerous

Typical liquid propellers

Cryogenics (liquids with T below-150 ºC):

 Liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid hydrogen (LH2): 𝐼sp ≃ 450 s. Low density of LH2 but complex turbomachinery
(unequal flow distribution, highly reactive cryogenic liquids).
 Liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid methane (CH4): 𝐼sp ≃ 380 s. Medium density of methane but less problematics
at turbomachinery.

Semi-cryogenics:

 Liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene or RP-1: 𝐼sp ≃ 300 s. High density if the RP-1 and problems at the
turbomachinery because of dirty burned gases.
Hypergolic (spontaneous combustion when mixed):

 Asymmetric dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4): 𝐼sp ≃ 300 s. Burnt gases toxics and
corrosion might be a problem. The N2O4 becomes gas at 294,84 K.

3.1.5 Multiple stages and stage recovery

It is possible to reduce the total quantity of fuel required if the launch vehicle can eject part of the weight when
gaining altitude. As the fuel and the oxidiser are consumed, the deposits are separated. The deposits are commonly
linked to the propulsive engines (nozzle, combustion chamber…) so several engines are required. This is commonly
known as multiple-stage-to-orbit.

Problematic of launch vehicles:

 The cost of the launch vehicle is intrinsically related with the cost of the engines
 For low orbits (LEO, low Earth orbit) the current cost ranges from 2000 € per kg and 35000 € per kg.
 Only the engine of the first stage can represent around 30 or 40% of the total cost of the mission.
 The recovery of the engines might significantly reduce the total cost of the launch. However, systems for
recovery also imply a higher weight and even if the engines are recovered, they would require from
reparation

Recoverable Shuttles

Important challenges:

 Recovery of the first stage: it implies a technically complex solution if the first stage is intended to be
recovered at the launch site, or a logistically complex solution if it is recovered at another site.
 Abortion strategies:
-The loss of a shuttle results in a financial shock (higher development and production cost), and also
technological (design rethinking, STS-Challenger).
-The abortion strategies must allow to recover the vehicle:
Number of engines (redundancy).
Landing sites choice.
Strategies of removal of fuels before landing.
 Technological challenges:
-Thermal protections (re-entry temperatures)
-Reusable propulsion (the highest reutilization rate is 21: SSME)
-Aero-thermodynamic (more complex shapes)
-Light structures

3.2 Space vehicles

3.2.1 Gravitational flight
Gravity fields

Mathematical model:

 Earth can be modelled as a point-mass with perturbations

 First approximation: two-body problem → Kepler laws
 Conic trajectories: elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic (Hoffman manoeuvre)

Uses:

 Use of relative speed between bodies during flight: gravity assist

 Gravity gradient stabilization

Energy and thrust sources

▪ Energy and propellant sources

- Hardly renewable sources: fuel / oxidiser, ssile material.

- Not so hardly renewable sources: solar panels, solar sails (velas).

▪ Uses

- Propulsion: propellant (ejected), electricity (actuators, acceleration of ejected particles).

- Thermal control: resistive electric heaters, RTGs.

▪ Not so distant future

- Solar sails.
- Refuelling in other celestial bodies (out-of-Earth mining).
- Nuclear thermal rockets.
- Nuclear fusion.

3.2.2 Conditions of space flight

1. Microgravity

Microgravity is a state where, even if gravity is not 0, it is not sufficient for most of the processes that people or
objects do:

- Loss of natural convection inside the vehicle. Forced convection is required for breathing and heat
dissipation
- Bone loss, muscular atrophy, cardiovascular changes. Astronauts lose on average 1% to 2% of their bone
mineral density every month
- Space adaptation syndrome. It can be trained on earth.
- Handholds and tether attach points for properly using tools during EVAs. All the actions or movements in the
space, need to be adequately predicted.
- Tethers attach points and personal propulsion systems.

The effect of microgravity on humans can be mitigated by scheduled exercise, taking drugs or creating artificial
gravity by centrifuges.

2. Vacuum

Surrounding the spacecraft there are conditions of vacuum: which means no gases around, and hence negligible
pressure. The main affects are:

- Sublimation
- Pressurisation stresses
- Out gassing
- Life-support: air
- Several hours for EVA preparation
 - No drag flight: efficient transport

3. Temperatures

Convection and diffusion are not possible in vacuum conditions, henceforth, radiation is the only heat transfer
phenomenon. Causes and effects:

- Large pressure gradients: in the moon, between 400K (sunlit) and 120K (shadow)
- Source of large mechanical stresses
- Material sublimation in vacuum
- Electronics damage

4. Radiation

No atmosphere protects the electronic devices or the astronauts to the solar particle events or to galactic cosmic
rays.

Sources:

- Van Allen radiation belts: inner (at around 3000 km) and outer (at around 15 000 km or 20 000 km). There
was a third one during the Cold War.
- South Atlantic Anomaly of the inner belt (Brazilian coast, 350 km – 50 km below space station).
- Cosmic rays, solar wind.
- Other radiation belts around other celestial bodies.

Effects:

- Generalised damage
- Solar radiation pressure

Threat mitigation:

- Shielding
- Mission planning

5. High speed impacts

The impacts are an issue unsolved which is growing in importance as debris increases. In 2013 it was estimated that
in earth orbit there were more than 170 million debris smaller than 1 cm, about 670,000 debris 1–10 cm and 29,000
larger pieces of debris.

Causes

- Lack of atmosphere
- high relative speeds. Orbital debris.
- Micrometeoroids.
- Big bodies.
- Docking and berthing risks.

Threat mitigation

- Tracking from the ground.

- Evasive action.
- Shielding.
- Visual inspection before re-entry
 6. Relativistic effects

Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by
Einstein in the years 1907–1915.

Huge errors after few days if the relatiistic effects are not considered.

3.2.3 Subsystems

1. Structure and mechanism

The structure is the skeleton that holds all the hardware (equipment) and bears all the mechanical loads produced
by the launch vehicle accelerations and vibrations, together with the thermal stresses in orbit.

The mechanisms of deployment and retraction of the communication systems are included within this group. The
vacuum conditions and thermal stresses are especially critical in the design of mechanisms

2. Energy and power

It comprises the generation, storage and distribution of the electric energy supplied to the hardware.

- Battery
- Nuclear energy
- Solar panels

3. Telemetry and remote control

It is in charge of keeping in touch with the ground segment in both its downlink and uplink. (Download and upload
the information with the Earth)

4. Attitude and orbit control

In charge of the satellite orientation process, comprising both the attitude stabilization and the control manoeuvres.

- Inertial wheels
- Thrusters
- Gravity gradients (The part with more mass points downwards)

5. Thermal control

System in charge of keeping each element aboard within the adequate temperature limits for its proper operation
during all the phases of the mission with the minimum resources.

- Heat generators: RTGs (plutonium), electricity…

- Fluid loops to transmit heat
- High-emissivity coatings (take profit of outer radiation)
- Variable emissivity (louvres)

6. Atmosphere control and vital support

Present in manned flights and spatial stations. It comprises the creation of an atmospheric environment,
temperature and humidity adequate maintenance, water supply, sanitary facilities, medical assistance and facilities
for the crew for exercise.

7. Propulsion

The propulsion needs of the satellites and spacecraft arise because of needing to perform manoeuvres for the
change of orbit and attitude.

3.2.4 Type of space vehicles

1. Fly-by
- Continuous trajectory never captured by any gravitational field.
- Capability of observing moving objectives.
- High data download velocity from the Earth.
- Capability of storing information when the Earth remains hidden from the view of the vehicle.
- Capability of surviving during long periods of interplanetary journey.

The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 vehicles were sent to the outer space at the end of 1977 in Titan III launch vehicles
with a Centaur upper stage. They were the first successful missions to Jupiter (1979) and Saturn (1980 and 1981).
An extended mission of the Voyager 2 successfully reached Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. In 1995 both
satellites remained alive and performing interplanetary routes and interstellar space studies. The Voyager 1 is
more than 141 AU (21.2 billion km) far away from the Earth. Up to date they are around the heliopause. It is
expected that both continue being active for a while, but they suffer from budget problems. These probes are
the artificial devices farthest ever sent by the human being.

2. Orbiter
- Spacecraft designed to travel to far planets and enter their orbit.
- They have enough propulsion capability to brake the vehicle in the moment of entering the orbit (to change
from elliptical to circular orbits).
- Designed to overcome solar occultations when the planet locates between the vehicle and the Sun, avoiding
the solar panels from being illuminated and submitting the vehicle to important thermal gradients.
- It will also be submitted to Earth occultations, preventing the communication to happen.
- They are employed in the second stage of the solar system exploration, to gain a higher knowledge with the
study of the planets.
- Some examples: Magellan (Venus), Galileo (Jupiter) and Mars Global Surveyor.

The Magellan was sent to space at the beginning of 1989 through the Atlantis space shuttle with a IUS upper stage
and Venus as its destination. By the end of its fourth rotation around Venus (243 days each), it had traced 98% of the
Venus surface with altimetry and radiometry. After providing images of Venus, the Magellan was wilfully destroyed
in October 1994.

Galileo was delivered into Earth orbit on October 18, 1989 by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Galileo arrived at Jupiter on
December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to orbit
Jupiter. On September 21, 2003, after 14 years in space and 8 years in the Jovian system, Galileo's mission was
terminated by sending it into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of over 48 kilometres per second (30 mi/s), eliminating
the possibility of contaminating local moons with terrestrial bacteria.

Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) was a robotic spacecraft developed by launched November 1996. Mars Global Surveyor
was a global mapping mission that examined the entire planet. It completed its primary mission in January 2001 and
was in its third extended mission phase when, on 2 November 2006, the spacecraft failed to respond to messages
and commands. In June 2006 it was sent an erroneous command to the probe to two memory directions by
removing two commands which made the heat exchanger at the battery was wrongly oriented at the sun provoking
a battery failure.

3. Space stations
A space station is an artificial structure designed to be inhabited in the outer space, with different aims. It is
distinguished from other manned spacecraft for its lack of main propulsion (other vehicles are used as transport
from and towards the station instead), and for its lack of landing means.

 SkyLab (1973-1979): 75 tones, 440km orbit. After a troubled launch, it was repaired and carried out 300
scientific experiments (astronomy, medical experiments, …). Its crew surpassed the number of aggregate
hours in the outer space up to the day. Due to funding problems, it was left in a stable orbit. It fell on the
Earth in a sparsely populated zone of Australia on July 11th 1979, without causing personal damages.
 Spacelab (1983-1999): first international cooperation, ESA.
 Freedom Program: proposed by Reagan to return to the Moon and reach Mars in 30 years.
 Salyut-Mir (1986-2003): 129 tones, 300-400km: program of the old URSS, cooperations with ESA and NASA
after its fall.
 ISS (1993-present): 420 tones, 400km. NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe),
and CSA (Canada).
- Ambitious project (budget, different countries involved).
- Limited use as a starting point for missions to the outer space.
- Utility of the experiments carried out.

Which factors apart from the political/economical ones determine the design of a space station?

 Attitude Control: The big mass of the space station makes the masses distribution be critical for the attitude
control and the orbit stabilization.
 Aerodynamic: Since they are at the LEO, the residual atmosphere produces a continuous decrement in the
orbit that must be compensated.
 Rendezvous: Coupling to transport vehicles.
 Pressurized Modules: Unions, redundant entries.
 Solar collectors and radiators
 Propulsion
 Observation and communication of the payload
 Environmental control
 Life supply

4. Lander

Designed to reach the planet’s surface and survive enough to gather information and send it to the Earth.

They can be designed for different space vehicles:

- Atmospheric probes
- Penetrators
- Robers

They might use:

- Aerobraking (parachutes)
- Rockets
- Inflatable airbags

Atmospheric probes

Some missions employ one or more instrumented small vehicles that separate from the main vehicle to study the
atmosphere of the planet as they fall. The atmospheric probes separate from the main vehicle thanks to simple
systems that do not modify the trajectory substantially. However, a is necessary in some occasions. correction
manoeuvre.
A thermal shield protects the probe from the temperature achieved during the atmospheric entry. The shield is
ejected, and a parachute reduces the falling velocity of the probe until it reaches the surface. The probe sends data
to the main vehicle, which in turn sends it to the Earth.

Penetrators

Surface penetrators are designed to cross the surface of a body, such as a comet, surviving to an impact of hundreds
of g’s. They measure and send data about the properties of the surface it comes across. Generally, data is sent to the
main vehicle, which forwards them to the Earth.

Rovers

Rovers are electric vehicles designed to travel over the surface of the bodies to be studied. Rovers are generally
semi-autonomous vehicles that can be controlled from the Earth. (sending a signal from Mars to Earth takes
between 3 and 21 minutes).

Some examples:

- The Venera program was the name given to a series of space probes developed by the Soviet Union between
1961 and 1984 to gather information about the planet Venus. Ten probes successfully landed on the surface
of the planet, while thirteen probes successfully entered the Venusian atmosphere (13 success over 27). Due
to the extreme surface conditions on Venus, the probes could only survive for a short period on the surface,
with times ranging from 23 minutes to two hours.
- (Rober) The Viking 1 landed on Mars in July 1976, followed by the Viking 2 a month later. These automatic
scientific labs photographed their surroundings and obtained information about the structure, surface and
atmosphere of the planet. Besides, they carried out a first investigation about the possibility of past and
present life in Mars.
- (Rober) Opportunity was active on Mars from 2004 until the middle of 2018 was able to stay operational for
5111 sols after landing, maintaining its power and key systems through continual recharging of its batteries
using solar power, and hibernating during events such as dust storms to save power. This careful operation
allowed Opportunity to exceed its operating plan by 14 years, 46 days (in Earth time), 55 times its designed
lifespan.
- (Rober) Curiosity is a car-sized rover designed to explore the crater Gale on Mars as part of NASA's Mars
Science Laboratory mission (MSL). Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 2011 and
landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 2012. The rover is still operational, and as of
November 2019 Curiosity has been on Mars for 2589 sols (2660 total days) since landing. It has a mass of 899
kg (1,982 lb) including 80 kg (180 lb) of scientific instruments. The rover is 2.9 m (9.5 ft) long by 2.7 m (8.9 ft)
wide by 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in height. It is powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), like the
successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers in 1976. The power source generates 9 MJ (2.5 kWh) of
electrical energy each day, much more than the solar panels of the now retired Mars Exploration Rovers,
which generated about 2.1 MJ (0.58 kWh) each day. Precision at landing was 2,4km after 500 million km of
distance travelled

5. Atmospheric balloons

Atmospheric balloons are designed to remain floating over the atmosphere and going adrift, so that they provide
information about the atmospheric movement. They are relatively simple and only need a power source for the
transmitters that make it possible to determine their position over time. In occasions they may have probes to
measure atmospheric properties (composition, temperature, pressure, density…).

6. Planetary spacecraft

Some studies have been carried out to evaluate the possibility of building aircraft, similar to the ones employed on
Earth, to perform observations in the planets. Reaction propulsion using the atmosphere of the planet and a nuclear
reactor. The fuel (nuclear) would be 1% of the spacecraft’s mass (in terrestrial vehicles it is about 30% of the
aircraft’s mass). They can’t be used in: Mercury, Pluto and Solar System satellites.
4. Missiles
Unmanned aerial vehicles powered and guided towards a target. The main features are:

- Automatic guidance towards the target

- Vital character of the mission
- High accuracy to impact the target
- They can reach extreme velocities (Mach 6-10)
- High manoeuvrability (x4/6 fighter aircraft)

All these facts imply a high cost and an advanced technology. They have very different configurations depending on
the mission.

4.1 Main elements/subsystems:

- Structure: shapes the missile and bears the structural loads. Protects the subsystems from kinetic heating,
atmospheric conditions…
- Propulsion:
- Energy supply: generator, batteries and wiring.
- Acquisition and tracking: in-flight containing of the relevant data of the target movement.
- Navigation and guidance: navigation (determine the position and velocity of the missile) and guidance (from
acquisition and navigation get de desired trajectory).
- Control: autopilot and actuators.
- Data management.
- Warhead: payload.

A missile can be divided into 4 sections: guidance, warhead, propulsion (engine + fuel) and control (tail, but
sometimes canard at the front).

4.2 Missiles classification

Strategic: neutralize strategic objectives:

- Unable the enemy to carry on with the armed conflict.

- Drastically reduce its defence capabilities.

Given the importance and extension of the objectives, the warhead is usually nuclear. There are three subgroups

- Ballistic: flight has three phases:

1- powered ascent to leave the atmosphere
2- ballistic trajectory in space (without propulsion)
3- Re-entry to impact the target.

Like spacecraft launch vehicles. Main characteristics:

 Not subjected to important lateral accelerations (light structure).

 Ranges 2000-15000 km. (large room for fuel)
 Position of target is known beforehand (inertial navigation).
 Not-atmospheric flight (aerodynamic control is not possible and engine can nor breathe). Jet control
by deflecting gases at nozzle.
 Autonomous propulsion: solid fuels nowadays.

- Tactical ballistic (no está en las diapos del 2020): high axial and lateral loads (robust structure), usually
launched through rails. The propulsion used is usually rocket engines with solid fuels. Some SAM and ASM of
long-range use turbojets or ramjets. The control is made out of aerodynamic, since the missile does not leave
 the atmosphere, the jet control is sometimes used to reduce response times. For the guidance, all types
methods and laws are used.
o AAM: high manoeuvrability to reach target (robust structure), with typical ranges of 10 to 200 km.
o ASM: includes anti-ship missiles. Lower lateral acceleration than ÁAM. High accuracy in acquisition
system, it is difficult to detect targets on surface (low contrast). Ranges from 4-100 km.
o SAM: 3-80 km.
o SSM: lower lateral accelerations than AAM. High accuracy in acquisition system, as it happens in
ASM. From 3-2000 km.

- Cruise:
 like an airplane (UAV), generating aerodynamic lift. Similar weight breakdown and velocities (M = 0.8-
0.9).
 Usually fly at low altitudes to avoid detection. Position of target known beforehand.
 Atmospheric flight with aerodynamic control and usually non-autonomous propulsion (turbojet and
ramjet).
 Size from 4-8 m and diameter less than 1 m.

Tactical: neutralize tactical objectives reducing the enemy capabilities in short term (aircrafts, ships…). Warhead is
usually conventional and some missiles with valuable targets are placed somewhere in the middle: tactical-ballistic.

General common features:

- High axial and lateral loads (Robust structure)

- Usually launched through rails:
 AAM, ASM: In the aircraft (wings, wingtips)
 SAM, SSM: From the ground (portable device, tanks, ramps…).
- Propulsion:
 Usually rocket engine with solid fuel.
 Some SAM or ASM long-range missiles use turbojet or ramjet.
- Control:
 Aerodynamic, since the missiles do not leave the atmosphere.
 Jet control is sometimes used to reduce the response times.
- Guidance:
 All the possible guidance methods and laws are used.

Types:

- AAM (air-air): High manoeuvrability to reach the target (Robust structure). Typical ranges: 10 to 200 km.
- ASM (air-surface): This includes the anti-ship missiles. Lower lateral accelerations than the AAM. High
accuracy in the acquisition system since it is difficult to detect targets on the surface (low contrast). Typical
ranges: 4 to 100 km.
- SAM (surface-air): This category includes the anti-missile missiles. Typical ranges: 3 to 80 km.
- SSM (surface-surface): Lower lateral accelerations than the AAM. High accuracy in the acquisition system, as
it happened with the ASM. Typical ranges: 3 to 2000 km.
4.3 Missile guidance and control

Control system: must be guided (or guided itself) towards the target.

- A control unit modifies its path with respect to the target at each instant.
- The control system is linked to the actuators, which are able to move the control surfaces.
- The energy of the control system is provided by batteries.

Control theory in control system engineering is a subfield of mathematics that deals with the control of continuously
operating dynamical systems in engineering processes and machines. The control algorithm can be divided into:

- Open loop: control action from the controller is independent of the process output. For example, the
amount of power that a determined amount of fuel give. (we have a model)
- Closed loop (feedback control): control action is modified as a function of the error between the desired
objective and the measured one.

There are different ways of implementing the missile control:

- Aerodynamic: movable surfaces that generate aerodynamic forces. They rely on the atmosphere to generate
these forces: tail, canard, wing and unconventional (TVC, JI).
- Jet control: generating a reaction force by means of a jet. This jet is usually the one used to generate thrust.
Allow the control without being surrounded by an atmosphere, if the missile carries a gas. Implemented by
jet vanes, orientable nozzle…

Tracking methods

Missile detects and follows the target by analysing its emitted or reflected radiation.

- Active: missile carries the source of radiation on-board (radars).

- Semi active: missile uses external, controlled source of radiation.
- Passive: missile use external, uncontrolled source of radiation (sun).

Navigation system

- Inertial navigation system (INS): An inertial navigation system determines the missile acceleration at each
instant. Successive integrations lead to the missile velocity and position.
 - GPS guidance: The position of the missile is determined by GPS.
- Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM): Missile measures terrain contour with and on-board radar altimeter
and compares it with the contours stored in missile according to predefined trajectory. DSMAC: modern
TERCOM make use of infrared system, lasers… or systems based on terrain elevations.
- Sensor data fusion: Information from diverse sources is mixed to provide high accuracy and robustness to
the control unit.
• Inertial navigation: Continuous information but integrates bias (precise in short time steps but
requires from update with time).
• GPS signal: Precise information but might suffer from signal noise
• TERCOM or DSMAP: Precise information when maps and sensor information is available.

Guidance methods:

- Television guidance (TGM): The missile is guided by an officer at the launch platform.
• Electro optical: The missile has an optical system (camera) to monitor the target. Their images are sent to
the launch platform, where an officer looks at them on a TV screen and sends corrections to the missile.
• Where do the acquisition and navigation processes take place?

- Auto-guidance: The guidance orders are determined by the missile automatically track and follow the target.
• Short distances: the algorithms are influenced by the target movement (guidance laws).
• Long distances (immobile targets): The guidance laws are designed to optimize the trajectory (path
planning)

Guidance laws and path planning: algorithms need to be solved to determine the control order required to follow a
particular trajectory that will eventually lead to collision. Note that these algorithms may be solved once the relative
among the target and missile is known (acquisition + navigation).

- Persecution: imposed that the velocity vector shapes a constant angle with line of sight (missile-target line).
If angle is zero, called pure persecution. If angle is different from zero, it is called persecution with deviation.
- Collision or interception: at a given instant, it is assumed that the target will move with a constant velocity
(module and vector) to determine the collision point. Information is updated at each instant.
- Proportional navigation: imposed that missile velocity vector rotates at a rate that is proportional to the
rotation rate of the line of sight (missile-target line).
- Director beam (three-point alignment): law used with the director beam. Target is followed by a radar or
laser beam emitted from an external source. Missile tries to always locate itself within the beam. Missile
does not see the target, climbs through the beam.

4.4 Missile propulsion

- Liquid fuel:
 Advantages: possible to regulate thrust by varying amount of fuel and oxide introduced in combustion
chamber.
 Disadvantages: less dense, need a great volume.
- Solid fuel:
 Advantages: simpler and safer, stable (stored for decades), denser (reduce volume).
 Disadvantages: once ignited, cannot be turned off. Thrust cannot be varied, respond to a predefined law.
Fuel consumption strategies and thrust delivered depend on fuel cross sectional arrangement.
5.1 Kinds of diverse aircraft
5.1.1 V/STOL vehicles and rotorcraft

Introduction

Fixed wind aircrafts require from a minimum speed to provide sufficient lift for ensuring a safe flight (stall speed).
That minimum speed forces fixed wing aircraft to depend on a minimum length of runway for taking off and landing.

V/STOL vehicles and rotorcraft are thought to permit shorter runways requirements or even allowing the vertical
flight to adapt the vehicles to different circumstances.

A division can be made:

- The STOL (Short Take-off and Landing) aircraft are those ones able to overcome an obstacle of a certain
height h, after a short take off distance d. There exist different criteria for the values of h and d, but the most
accepted ones are h = 50 ft and d = 500 ft.
- A VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) aircraft is that one that can vertically take-off and land, but it exhibits
similar forward flight performance (actuations) compared to the fixed wing aircraft.
- Rotorcraft: Aircraft in which all or part of the lift force required in flight is obtained through one or more
rotors.

Regarding the vertical flight, the most efficient way of flying is by pushing a lot of air at low speed. Similar to
efficiency in propulsion systems.

Classification of rotorcraft

A particular case: the helicopter. We consider it a

VTOL, although it is a special case as it has
limitations in forward flight, attending to its cruise
speed when compared to the fixed wing aircraft.

- The best in fixed point and steady flight.

- Acceptable performance in forward flight.
Stall at high V.
- Autorotation
VSTOL Aircraft Classification

Same powerplant for take-off, landing and cruise

- Tilt Shaft/Rotor (orientable shaft/rotor)

- Tilt Prop (orientable propeller)
- Tilt Duct (propeller with orientable diffuser)
- Tilt Wing (orientable wing)
- Tilt Rotor (orientable rotor-engine)
- Tilt Jet (orientable jet)
- Deflected Slipstream. Coanda effect
- Vectored Thrust
- Tail Sitters

Different powerplants for fixed point flight (take-off and landing) and cruise

- Lift+Cruise
- Lift + lift/cruise
- Tip jet

Enhanced propulsion in fixed point flight (take-off and landing):

- Ejector
- Fan
- Rotor

Conclusions

Multiple options have been evaluated, some more seriously than others. It is required to enhance the reliability of
the driving and mechanical systems.

Main limitations:

- Appropriate powerplant: the vertical flight requires from a big engine, but it damages the aerodynamic
efficacy at cruise conditions
- Stability and control problems: The control must deal with all the possible situations.
- Vibrations: A significant part of the aircraft is subjected to vibrations.
- Funding: the number of applications is reduced.
- Problems in the transition: when good cruise and vertical speed are desired
5.1.2 Miscellaneous vehicles

Introduction

Von Karman-Gabrielli diagram

Ground effect vehicle (GEV)

Uses the extra lift provided by the ground effect to flight at low altitudes and high speeds.

Advantages:

The proximity to the ground impedes the vorticity at the wind tip, so:

- Reduces the induced Drag

- Increases the total lift for a given surface
- Does not require from big wing surfaces

Disadvantages:

It requires low altitude:

- low altitudes does not provide optimal range

- Waves together with gusts might destabilize the vehicle
- Low longitudinal stability
- Not easy to avoid collisions

Lot of thrust is required for taking-off

Examples:

Caspian Sea monster: In 1966 the URSS developed a GEV vehicle that the USA intelligence named “the Caspian Sea
monster”. It was able to flight at more than 500 km/h at 3-10 m, it measured 106m and weighted around 550 tones.

Bavar 2: presented by the Iranian navy in 2010. Designed to have a small radar signature for patrol missions.

Estonian transport company Sea Wolf Express plans to launch passenger service in 2019 between Helsinki and
Tallinn, a distance of 87 km, with an speed of 160 km/h with 15 ekranoplans.

(Future concept) Be 2500: 2500 tones, 800km/h at 10 km or 450km/h at ground with a range of 18000km and 10000
km respectively.
(Future concept) Aerocon Dash-1.6 wingship: 3500 tones, with a speed of 740km/h with a range of 19000km (ceiling
of 4.5km).

Air Cushion vehicle (ACV) or hovercraft

Air cushion vehicles create a large volume of air below the hull that is slightly above the atmospheric pressure.

A skirt blown by internal fans solves the problem of wave and obstacles collision at first porotypes because of low
distance to the ground (23 cm or 9 inches to be practical) while propellers provide the vehicle with sufficient thrust.

There are different possible configurations:

- A single engine with a gearbox that moves propellers and fan

- Various engines for lift and propulsion
- A single engine with duct diversion

Hovercraft were extensively used at the 60s and 70s to transport high loads and many passengers at high speed, but
because of the lower consumption of newer high-speed crafts the have been substituted by catamarans.
Nevertheless, they are able to move at various environments (ice, watter, ground…) and they found several roles
where its characteristics might be advantageous (Search and rescue, military amphibious operations, sports vehicle).

Hydrofoils

They are lifting surfaces (flow deflection) that operate under water. As a hydrofoil craft gains speed, the hydrofoils
lift the boat's hull out of the water, decreasing drag and allowing greater speeds.

They can be divided in two type of configurations:

- Surface-piercing hydrofoils: Early designs consisted in V-shape. Part of the hydrofoil rises above the water
surfaces.
- Fully submerged: All the lifting surface lies below the water, and hence, it is more stable to wave action.
Nevertheless, this configuration cannot self-stabilize and consequently requires an automatic control
system.

Hydrofoils might present specific benefits front modern high-speed crafts. Nowadays they are currently used in
sailing and sports and modern passenger boats.

However, they have several drawbacks that has limited its use:

- Hydrofoils are sensitive to impacts with floating objects and marine animals
- The cost of hydrofoils boats uses to be three times the cost of a similar boat with higher costs of
maintenance.
- Conservative industry, where research in hydrofoils is limited.
5.2 Rotorcraft Aerodynamics
5.2.1: The development of the helicopter

The idea of using rotating wings arose before the fixed wing concept.

Critical points in the development of the helicopter

- To understand the aerodynamics of the vertical flight. First developments in 1920s.

- Necessity of having an appropriate powerplant. Internal combustion engine, at the beginning of the 20th
century.
- To minimize the structural and engine weight. Weight-power ratio. Usage of aluminium.
- To solve the problem of the reaction torque introduced by the main rotor. Double rotor (coaxial or side-to-
side). Anti-torque rotor (Sikorsky).
- Adequate controllability and stability. Asymmetry in the blade’s aerodynamics. Introduction of joints (Cierva,
Breguet and others). Cyclic pitch control.
- To solve vibrations problems. Dynamics and aero stability of the rotors

5.2.2: Aerodynamic Complexity

The velocity field over the airfoils varies due to the rotation. Dependance on r and ψ.

Definition of the angles of the blades of a helicopter:

The rotor acts in a helical shape. Its union with the rotorhead is not rigid but articulated. Thanks to the articulation,
the different movements can be imposed:

- Flap angle: over the disk plane one blade moves up and the other moves down.
- Lag angle: variation of the angle in the forward movement of the blade
- Pitch angle: variation of the angle of the blade in the longitudinal way
- Coning angle: variation of the angle normal to the rotor axis (V)

The problem gets more complicat

- Manoeuvring in flight.
- Movement of the blades as a rigid body: lagging and drag articulations.
- Flexibility of the blade structure.
- Interaction with the rest of the helicopter structure and with the own vortexes de-attached from a previous
blade.
Necessity of coupling the aerodynamic, mechanical and structural problems: aero-mechanics and aero elasticity.

Aerodynamic complex phenomena

Aerodynamic analysis: to know the vorticity distribution

The wake of the rotors is shaped by vorticity surfaces and eddies filaments.

Vorticity:

- “Shed” (vorticity transversal to the UT velocity) azimuthal variations of the circulation.

- “Trailed” radial variations of the linked circulation distribution.

Blade tip vortex (eddie): it is the vorticity structure that influences the induced velocity in the wake in a more
important way.

Importance of the wake. Induced velocity.

- Generation of lift associated to the circulation distribution linked to it (it will vary with the radial and
azimuthal position).
- Variations of circulation are associated to a generation of vorticity in the wake (Lanchester-Prandtl wing
theory) being very intense in the blade tip (blade tip vortex).
- The vorticity structures induce velocity in all the flow field.
- The airfoil will not “see” ωr, vi will also need to be considered.

Key of the aerodynamic problem: determine vi.

5.2.3: Helicopter Flight Dynamics

Main forces and moments: • Main rotor • Anti-torque rotor • Fuselage • Stabilizers

5.2.4: Helicopter Architecture

Structure or cell:

- Fuselage
- Tailcone
- Landing gear
- Engine and transmission cowlings

Fuselage:

- Place for the helicopter crew and payload.

- Structure: usually semimonocoque.
- Some transparencies are needed (visibility), as well as access doors.

Main rotor or rotors Parts:

- Rotorhead (joint element to the axis).

- Blade (rotating wing) with its aerodynamic airfoil generate lift

Control system:

- Control in altitude, roll, pitch and yaw.

- Necessity of changing the pitching angle (θ) of the blades.
- The blade pitch is varied in a general way (collective) or cyclic for altitude, pitch and roll.
- The yaw movement is controlled by the anti-torque.
Necessity of communicating a fixed part (pilot controls), with a movable part (blades). Different systems.

Pilot controls:

- Cyclic stick:
 Placed in front of the pilot, it provides longitudinal and lateral control.
 The stick is pushed in the sense of the movement.
 It usually has a trim device for compensated flight
- Collective lever:
 Placed at the left of the pilot, it controls the vertical displacement of the helicopter.
 It modifies the pitching angle of the blades, thus controlling the lift of the main rotor.
 It is used in combination with the throttle, which is usually placed at the end of the collective lever.
Automatic regulation to keep the rpm.
- Pedals:
 Provide with yaw or directional control
 They work modifying the thrust of the tail rotor or anti-torque available device.
 They are linked to the anti-torque through a transmission mechanism.
 The pedal must be stepped in the required direction.

Problem of the cyclic blade pitch control: We need a system capable of tilting the rotor plane.

- Independent of the cyclic variations needed due to the asymmetry of lift.

- Initially (autogyros) the whole axis was tilted. Gyroscope.
- Usual systems: swash plate and spider-system control

Anti-torque system

- Necessary in helicopters with a single rotor

- In the case of two rotors (tandem, side-to-side, coaxials…) the torque is compensated between them.
- It is also used for yaw control.
- Systems:
 Anti-torque rotor:
Changing the collective pitch angle of the blades, its thrust is controlled, and the torque with it.
 Fenestron:
Ducted fan. It reduces the irradiated noise. Less interference with the vertical stabilizer. More protected,
higher safety in the operation.
 Notar (NO TAil Rotor):
Compressed air is expelled through a slot along the tailcone. Coanda effect. It reduces noise and
vibrations. Increases safety.

The main purposes of the anti-torque rotor are:

- To provide the compensation torque to the engine torque.

- To provide stability as well as control around the yaw axis.

The anti-torque rotor operates in a complex aerodynamic environment and must be capable of providing the
necessary thrust from the relative airflow coming in any direction in general. For instance, the anti-torque rotor must
provide the necessary thrust in crosswinds, lateral manoeuvres… When the helicopter is oriented towards the left,
the anti-torque rotor finds an effective stream of ascending flight. However, if the helicopter is oriented toward the
right, the rotor is working under descent flight conditions. This operation may be critical, since the anti-torque rotor
can easily start operating in the vortex ring state or turbulent wake. This can lead to a loss of lateral control if a
combination of the worst conditions takes place. Since it is located in the vertical stabilizer, the aerodynamic
interactions must be carefully analysed, as they will affect the behaviour of the antitorque rotor. In addition, the
interaction with the wakes thrown by the main rotorhead and fuselage as well as the main rotor’s own wake will
affect the behavior of the anti-torque rotor. This adverse aerodynamic environment means that the design
requirements for the anti-torque rotor are pretty different compared to those of the main rotor. The main
consequence is that finding the anti-torque rotor design that satisfies all the specifications with regard to
aerodynamics, control, stability, weight, etc. is a very difficult task.

Dragging system (powerplant)

- It is employed to move the rotor or rotors.

- It can consist of one or several motors.
- Usually it is a reciprocating engine (M2000 kg)
- When it is dragged by reaction, the use of the anti-torque rotor can be saved.
- The most commonly used is the turboshaft

Transmission system

- Very important, specially in helicopters of mechanical powerplant.

- Main elements that it is composed of:
 Clutch
 Free wheel
 Rotor brake
 Main gearbox
 Driveshaft
 Intermediate shaft (to the anti-torque)
 Couplings
 Change of angle
 90º change
 Anti-torque gearbox
- Necessity of lubrication

Flight instruments

Slide 42, just take a look

5.2.5. Main design parameters

Disk loading

It is the thrust by surface unit of the rotor in steady flight. The disk loading has been increasing through the years.
Typical values: 200-500 N·m-2
Diameter of the anti-torque rotor

Number of blades

Blade tip velocity to flight velocity relation

- Blade tip velocity ΩR ~ 200-220 m·s-1 (M~0,6-0,65)

- V+ΩR ~ 0,8-0,9
- Forward parameter: μ=V/ΩR ~ 0,3 – 0,4
Flight envelope

Altitude-flight velocity relation

Useful load as a function of the total mass