Slide Chapter 1v2

21/9/2022
Applied Electronics
Điện tử ứng dụng
Contents
• Chapter 1: Semiconductor components
• Chapter 2: PCB Assembly and soldering techniques
• Chapter 3: Several applied circuits
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References
• T. Floyd, Electronic devices – Conventional Current Version, 9th edition, Prentice
Hall, 2012
• Boylestad, Electronic devices and circuit theory, 11th edition
Chapter 1: Semiconductor components
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Current in semiconductors
• Creation of electron-hole pairs in a
silicon crystal.
• Electrons in the conduction band are
free electrons.
• Electron current in intrinsic silicon is
produced by the movement of
thermally generated free electrons.
PN Junction
• N-Type Semiconductor
• The electrons are the majority carriers and the holes are the minority. This is done by
doping process.
• P-Type Semiconductor
• The holes are the majority carriers and the electrons are the minority.
• The basic silicon structure at the

instant of junction formation showing • electrons diffuse and a depletion
only the majority and minority carriers. region is formulated
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1.1 Diode - Basic
1.1 Diode - Basic

• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually
silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n
region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.
Basic structure Symbol
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1.1 Diode - Packages
1.1 Diode - Forward & Reverse Bias

• To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.
• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn
junction.
• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current
through the diode.
Forward bias Reverse bias
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1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode

• V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
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1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode

• V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
• Complete V-I
Temperature Effect
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1.1 Diode - Diode models

• Bias Connections
• The Ideal Diode Model
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• 2. The Practical Diode Model
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3. The Complete Diode Model
IR : Reverse (leakage) current  diode datasheet

18
VR = IR r’R
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1.1 Diode - Diode applications

• Rectifiers Half-wave
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• Half-wave RectifierOperation
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• Average Voltage & PIV
• Average Value of the Half-Wave
Output Voltage
• Effect of the Barrier Potential
• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the

peak value of the input voltage
The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount

of repetitive reverse voltage.
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1.1 Diode - Transformer Coupling
n : turns ratio
Vsec: secondary voltage
Vpri : primary voltage
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1.1 Diode – Rectifiers Full-wave Rectifiers
• Center-tapped Full-wave
Rectifier
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1.1 Diode - Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
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1.1 Diode - Datasheet
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1. Determine the peak

repetitive reverse voltage
for each of the following
diodes:
1N4002, 1N4003, 1N4004,
1N4005, 1N4006.
2. If the forward current is
800 mA and the forward
voltage is 0.75 V in a
1N4005, is the power
rating exceeded?
3. What is IF(AV) for a
1N4001 at an ambient
temperature of 100oC
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1.1 Diode - Testing
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1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting
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1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting
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Example
• Step 1: There is no voltage at
test point 2 (TP2). This
indicates that the fault is
between the input to the
transformer and the output of
the rectifier. Most likely, the
problem is in the transformer or
in the rectifier, but there may
be a short from the filter input
to ground.
• Step 2: The voltage at test point
1 (TP1) is correct, indicating
that the transformer is working.
So, the problem must be in the
rectifier or a shorted filter input
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Example • Step 3: With the power turned off,

use a DMM to check for a short from
the filter input to ground. Assume
that the DMM indicates no short. The
fault is now isolated to the rectifier.
• Step 4: Apply fault analysis to the
rectifier circuit. Determine the
component failure in the rectifier that
will produce a 0 V input. If only one
of the diodes in the rectifier is open,
there should be a half-wave rectified
output voltage, so this is not the
problem. In order to have a 0 V
output, there must be an open In the
rectifier circuit.
• Step 5: With the power off, use the
DMM in the diode test mode to
check each diode.Replace the
defective diodes, turn the power on,
and check for proper operation.
Assume this corrects the problem
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Ví dụ 1
• Tính V0
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Ví dụ 2
• Tính V01, V02
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Ví dụ 3
• Xác định V0 và ID
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Ví dụ 4
• Xác định V0 và ID
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Ví dụ 5
• Xác định V0 và các giá trị dòng
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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

• Specs:
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Capacitor-input filter
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Ripple Voltage
• Ripple Factor
• The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and
is defined as
where Vr(pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and VDC is the dc (average) value of the
filter’s output voltage
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• Design Rectifier Circuit
Rectifier Diodes
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• Simulation
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• PCB
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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode

• A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for
operation in the reverse-breakdown region.
• The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the
doping level during manufacture.
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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode

• Zener EquivalentCircuits
• Zener is used as Regulator
• Two Models
• Ideal Model
• Practical Model
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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• Basic operation :
• When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type
material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.
• The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the
energy of visible light.
• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the
form of photons.
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• Light Emission:
• An LED emits light over a specified range of wavelengths.
• Examples of typical spectral output curves for LEDs:
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• Typical LEDs
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• LEDApplication - 7-Segment Display
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• LEDApplication LED Displays
• The concept of an RGB pixel used
in LED display screens
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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Optical Diodes

• The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias where I is the
reverse light current.
• The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike
the pn junction.
• Internal Resistance changes by the amount of light.
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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Tunnel Diodes
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1.1 Diode – Practical Applications

• 12v regulated PowerSupply
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• 12v regulated PowerSupply
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• Battery charger
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• Battery charger
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1.2 Transistors - Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) structure
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1.2 Transistors - Packages
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1.2 Transistors - Basic Operation

• Biasing & Operation
• Transistor Currents
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1.2 Transistors - BJT Configurations

Configuration Input Output
Common Emitter Base Collector
Common Base Emitter Collector
Common Collector Base Emitter
• Base terminal can’t be output

• Collector terminal can’t be input
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1.2 Transistors - BJT Parameters

• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc
collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) and is
designated dc beta (βDC).
• Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

• βDC is usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h)
parameter, hFE, on transistor datasheets.
• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc

emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (ɑDC).
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1.2 Transistors - Transistor DC Model
Ic= βIB
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• Determine the dc current gain βDC and the emitter current IE for a transistor where
IB = 50 mA and IC = 3.65 mA.
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• Determine the dc current gain bDC and the emitter current IE for a transistor where
IB = 50 mA and IC = 3.65 mA.
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• Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit of Figure 4–9. The transistor
has a βDC = 150.
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• Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit of Figure 4–9. The transistor
has a βDC = 150.
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1.2 Transistors - Collector characteristic curves

Operation Regions
• Active
• Cut-off
• Saturation
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1.2 Transistors - BJT as an Amplifier
re = 26 mv/ IE
IE = IC + IB
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1.2 Transistors - BJT as a Switch
• IB should be significantly
greater than IB(min) to
ensure that the transistor
is saturated
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Example 4-10
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A transistor switch
• A transistor used to switch an LED on and off
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1.2 Transistors - The Phototransistor
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Troubleshooting a Biased Transistor
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DMM Diode Test Position
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Troubleshooting a Voltage-Divider Biased Transistor
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1.2 Transistors - Phototransistor Application

• Relay circuits driven by a phototransistor
• A relay is an electrically operated switch.

• relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch
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1.2 Transistors - Transistor Bias Circuit

• What’s Biasing?
• Bias establishes the dc operating point (Q-point) for proper linear operation of an amplifier.
• Why?
• If an amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltages on the input and output, it can go into saturation or cutoff when an
input signal is applied.
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1.2 Transistors - Q-point Adjustment
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1.2 Transistors - DC Load Line
• Variations in collector current and collector-to-emitter voltage as a result of a variation

in base current.
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1.2 Transistors - Waveform Distortion
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1.2 Transistors - Voltage-Divider bias
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1.2 Transistors - Loading Effects of Voltage-Divider Bias
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1.2 Transistors - Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-

Divider Bias
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1.2 Transistors – other Bias Circuits

Base Bias Emitter Bias Collector Bias
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1.2 Transistors – other Bias Circuits

Emitter Feedback Bias Collector Feedback Bias
Note:
Different bias circuits has different stability levels against beta
and/or temperature changes
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Example
• Determine VCE and IC in the stiff voltage-divider biased transistor circuit if bDC =
100.
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Example
• Determine the dc input resistance looking in at the base of the transistor. bDC = 125
and VB = 4 V.
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Example
• Find IC and VEC for the pnp transistor circuit in Figure.
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Example
• Calculate IE and VCE for the circuit in Figure using the approximations VE ~ -1 V
and IC ~ IE.
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1.2 Transistors - Linear Amplifier
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1.2 Transistors - C.E. AC Analysis

•DC Analysis: Capacitors  Open
Circuit (See before)
•AC Analysis: Capacitors  short

Circuit DC supply  ground
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1.2 Transistors - AC r-parameter Model
Input resistance
Output resistance
Voltage gain
Current gain
Power gain
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1.2 Transistors - Multistage Amplifier
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1.2 Transistors – FET vs. BJT
 One of the most important characteristics of the FET is its high input impedance.
 Typical ac voltage gains for BJT amplifiers are a great deal more than for FETs.
 FETs are more temperature stable than BJTs, and FETs are usually smaller than BJTs, making them particularly
useful in integrated-circuit (IC) chips.
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1.2 Transistors - FET vs. BJT
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1.2 Transistors - FET Constructions
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1.2 Transistors - FET Characteristics
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1.2 Transistors - JFET & MOSFET Symbol
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1.2 Transistors - Other MOSFETS

• VMOS AND UMOS POWER MOSFETs • CMOS
• MESFET
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1.2 Transistors - Testing with DMM
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1.2 Transistors -Testing with DMM
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1.2 Transistors -Testing with DMM
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1.2 Transistors - Voltage Divider circuit
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1.2 Transistors - 2-stage Amplifier
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1.2 Transistors - FET circuits
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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications

• Relay Driver
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• Light Control
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• Alarm System
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• Logic gates
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• Voltage level indicator
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• Audio mixer
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• Security Alarm System
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• Security Alarm System
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• Temperature to Voltage Converter
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1.3 Op-amp - Introduction

• Early operational amplifiers (op-amps)
were used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation—thus the term
operational.
• These early devices were constructed with
vacuum tubes and worked with high
• voltages.
• Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits
(ICs) that use relatively low dc supply
voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.
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1.3 Op-amp - Ideal & Practical Op-Amp
• Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
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1.3 Op-amp - 741 Op-Amp Internal Circuit
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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters

• Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
• The common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR:
It’s the ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the common- mode gain, Acm.
• Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB) and is not a well- controlled parameter.
• Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain.
• A CMRR of 100,000, for example, means that the desired input signal (differential) is amplified 100,000
times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode).
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Example
• A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential voltage gain of 100,000 and a
common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express it in decibels.
135

• MaximumOutput Voltage Swing (VO(p-p))
• With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V. This is called the quiescent output voltage.
• When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal are ±Vcc.
• In practice this ideal can be approached but never reached.
• Vopp varies with the load connected to the op-amp and increases directly
with load resistance.
Example:
Fairchild KA741
• Input Offset Voltage

• The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
• In a practical op-amp, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the output when no differential input voltage is applied.
• Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an op-amp.
• The input offset voltage, Vo, is the differential dc voltage required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
• Typical values VOS, are in the range of 2 mV or less.
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• Input Bias Current • The input bias current is the dc current
required by the inputs of the amplifier to
properly operate the first stage.
• Input bias current is the average of the two
op-amp input currents
• Input Impedance
• The differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting and the non-inverting inputs.
• The common-mode input impedance is the resistance between each input and ground and is measured by determining
the change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input voltage.
137

• Input Offset Current • Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is
zero.
• In a practical op-amp, the bias currents are not exactly equal.
• The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the input bias currents,
expressed as an absolute value.
• Output Impedance
• The output impedance is the
resistance viewed from the
output terminal of the op-amp
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• Slew Rate • The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step
input voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp.
• The slew rate is dependent upon the high-frequency response of the
amplifier stages within the op-amp.
• Slew-rate measurement
139

• Frequency Response
• The internal amplifier stages that make up an op-amp have voltage gains
limited by junction capacitances.
• An op-amp has no internal coupling capacitors, however; therefore, the low-frequency response extends down to dc (0
Hz).
• Noise Specification
• Noise has become a more important issue !
• Noise is defined as an unwanted signal that affects the quality of a desired
signal.
• There are two basic forms of noise.
• At low frequencies, noise is inversely proportional to the frequency; this is called
1/f noise or “pink noise”.
• Above a critical noise frequency, the noise becomes flat and is spread out
equally across the frequency spectrum; this is called “white noise”.
• The power distribution of noise is measured in
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1.3 Op-amp - Op-amps with negative feedback

• Why Use Negative Feedback?
• Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal.
• Open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high.
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp into its saturated output states.
• In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp can drive it into saturation.
141

• An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize the gain and
increase frequency response.
• The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external
feedback.
• The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external component values
• and can be precisely controlled by them.
• Non-inverting Amplifier
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Example
• Determine the closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure
143

• Voltage-Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
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Example
• Given the op-amp configuration in Figure, determine the value of Rf required to
produce a closed-loop voltage gain of -100.
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1.3 Op-amp - Bias current and offset voltage

• Certain deviations from the ideal op-amp must be recognized because of their
effects on its operation
• Transistors within the op-amp must be biased so that they have the correct
values of base and collector currents and collector-to-emitter voltages.
• The ideal op-amp has no input current at its terminals; but in fact, the practical
op-amp has small input bias currents typically in the nA range.
• Also, small internal imbalances in the transistors effectively produce a small
offset voltage between the inputs.
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1.3 Op-amp - Effect of Input Bias Current
147
1.3 Op-amp - Bias Current Compensation

• To compensate for the effect of
bias , a resistor Rc is added.
• Use of a BIFET Op-Amp to
Eliminate the Need for Bias
Current Compensation
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1.3 Op-amp - Effect of Input Offset Voltage
Input Offset Voltage Compensation
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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS

• Zero Level Detection
• Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the
• amplitude of one voltage with another.
• In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration, with the input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the
other.
• The output is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.
• Comparators provide very fast switching times.
• Comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit ( output is in one of two states).
• One application of a
comparator is to determine
when an input voltage
exceeds a certain level.
• If the level is Zero (Ground)  Zero Level Detection
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151

• Effects of Input Noise on Comparator
Operation
• To make the comparator less sensitive to noise, a technique uses positive
feedback, called hysteresis, can be used.
• Hysteresis means that there is a higher reference level when the input
voltage goes from a lower to higher value than when it goes from a higher
to a lower value.
• A good example of hysteresis is a common house-hold thermostat that
turns the
• furnace on at one temperature and off at another.
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• Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis
• A comparator with built-in

hysteresis is sometimes known
as a Schmitt trigger.
• The amount of hysteresis is
defined by the difference of
the two trigger levels.
153

• Output Bounding
• The process of limiting the
output range is called
bounding.
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• ComparatorApplications - Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
• The simultaneous, or flash,
method of A/D conversion
uses parallel comparators to
compare the linear input
signal with various reference
voltages developed by a
voltage divider.
• When the input voltage
exceeds the reference voltage
for a given comparator, a high
level is produced on that
comparator’s output.
2n- 1 comparators are required for

conversion to an n-digit binary number.
155

• ComparatorApplications - Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit
Specific Comparators
• The LM111 and LM311 are examples of specific comparators that exhibit high switching speeds and other features not
normally found on the general type of op-amp.
157
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1.3 Op-amp - TROUBLESHOOTING
159
160
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161
1.3 Op-amp- Practical applications

• Op-Amp AudioAmplifier
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• Sine/Pulse Waveform Generator
163

• Sine/Pulse Waveform Generator..
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21/9/2022

Chapter 1: Semiconductor components

• The basic silicon structure at the

1.1 Diode - Basic

1.1 Diode - Basic

Basic structure Symbol

1.1 Diode - Packages

1.1 Diode - Forward & Reverse Bias

Forward bias Reverse bias

1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode

1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode

1.1 Diode - Diode models

• The Ideal Diode Model

1.1 Diode - Diode models

1.1 Diode - Diode models

IR : Reverse (leakage) current  diode datasheet

1.1 Diode - Diode applications

1.1 Diode - Diode applications

1.1 Diode - Diode applications

• Effect of the Barrier Potential

• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the

The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount

1.1 Diode - Transformer Coupling

1.1 Diode – Rectifiers Full-wave Rectifiers

1.1 Diode - Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

1.1 Diode - Datasheet

1. Determine the peak

1.1 Diode - Testing

1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting

1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting

Example • Step 3: With the power turned off,

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

• Examples of typical spectral output curves for LEDs:

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Optical Diodes

1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Tunnel Diodes

1.1 Diode – Practical Applications

1.1 Diode – Practical Applications

1.1 Diode – Practical Applications

1.1 Diode – Practical Applications

1.2 Transistors - Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) structure

1.2 Transistors - Packages

1.2 Transistors - Basic Operation

1.2 Transistors - BJT Configurations

• Base terminal can’t be output

1.2 Transistors - BJT Parameters

• Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc

1.2 Transistors - Transistor DC Model

1.2 Transistors - Collector characteristic curves

1.2 Transistors - BJT as an Amplifier

1.2 Transistors - BJT as a Switch

1.2 Transistors - The Phototransistor