Acoustics in

Buildings and Sound absorption,

its Acoustical materials and various types like Prefabricated
units,
Integration Panel absorbers, Diffusers

with Acoustical plaster and sprayed on materials

Architectural Acoustical blankets

a) Acoustical Materials curtains,
Design
porous materials,
fiberglass
foam panels
Special and variable sound absorptive materials like
Helmholtz
resonators, draperies
Whispering galleries, Echoes, flutter echoes,

room resonances, sound foci, dead spots,

ultrasonic and infra range sound.

Reverberation and reverberation time,

Unit II : Acoustical Materials and b)Theoretics

open window unit,
Absorption coefficients of important materials used for
Equipment. acoustical treatment.
RT calculations using Sabine’s formula.

Effect of RT on speech and music.

Acoustical design

recommendation for building examples with RT calculations.

AI (Articulation Index), STI, (Speech

Transmission Index).

RASTI (Room Acoustic Speech Transmission Index),

c) Introduction to Acoustical Tools and

Use of SLM (Sound Level Meter),
Measurements

sound attenuation and STC ratings—(sound transmission

class)

sound reinforcement systems.

Acoustics in
Buildings and
its
Sound absorption,
Integration
with
Architectural Acoustical materials and various
Design types- Prefabricated units and
surface coat materials

Prefabricated units: Panel

absorbers, Diffusers

Acoustical plaster and sprayed on

materials
Unit II : Acoustical
Materials and a) Acoustical Materials Acoustical blankets and curtains,

Equipment.
porous materials,

fiberglass

foam panels

Special and variable sound

absorptive materials like Helmholtz
resonators, draperies
SOUND ABSORPTION
All materials absorb some sound, but proper acoustical
control requires use of materials that have been
specially designed as sound absorptive – known as
“ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS”.
Before selecting , one should study the structural
strength, the amount of light it can reflect, absorption of
water, combustible or non-combustible, decorative
qualities, cost etc.
Sound is absorbed by a mechanism which converts
sound into heat. Materials such as mineral wool,
blankets have a multiple of small deeply penetrating
intercommunicating pores. The sound gets converted
into heat by friction & resistance within the pores
and by vibration of fibres of the material(95% abs).

Absorption by porous material is more at high

frequency than at low frequency. Absorption by
panels is less at high frequency and more at low
frequency.
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS

Vegetable fiber
Organic
compressed cane/wood
fiber
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS

PREFABRICATED mineral wool, Fiberglass,

UNITS
PANEL ABSORBERS
Mineral wool with
DIFFUSERS cement, lime , gypsum
Inorganic
Fiberglass, Blankets & Curtains
Blankets & Curtains
Foam panels
SURFACE FINISH Acoustical plaster and
MATERIAL sprayed on materials

Special and variable sound absorptive materials

like Helmholtz resonators, draperies
ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS: VARIOUS TYPES

• PREFABRICATED UNITS,
• PANEL ABSORBERS,
• DIFFUSERS
These are made of either compressed cane or wood
fiber or mineral wool and are widely used since they
possess uniform physical and absorption
characteristics

PANEL ABSORBERS:
Materials used: Pressed wood fibre or paper boards, plywood or plane boards.
used for ceilings, wainscoting or even the entire walls of a room where low
frequency abs. is required. (Music studios, classrooms and offices).

“Reduces the amount of additional absorption required for optimum R.T.”

Effectiveness of panel is influenced by the presence of an enclosed air space
back of it which affects the abs. frequency characteristics of the panel . Abs. of a
thin panel can be increased by placing an absorptive material such as mineral
wool blanket in an enclosed air space.
ACOUSTICAL TILES

Tiles used in building to maximize the quality of

sound produced in the room. It also reduces
unwanted sound transmission coming from
outside.

Theaters, concert halls and churches use it to

make auditory experience more pleasant. In
addition, acoustical tile aims to eliminate
exterior noise such as traffic, allowing audience
to focus on what they've come to hear. This
sound-filtering capability is very useful in schools
and office buildings.

These can be hung from a suspended grid system

on the ceiling, or can be affixed directly to an
existing ceiling, or can be fastened to the surface
of a wall. It is usually suspended on wooden grid
but can be glued or attached to solid surfaces.
ACOUSTICAL TILES

Made of mineral wool, compressed cane,

wood fiber or glass fiber.

Since these are prone to damages, they

are not recommended for walls that are
within human reach. Most outstanding
feature is its built-in absorptive value. Acoustic Mineral Fibre Ceiling
Since factory made product porosity, Tiles, Boards & Panels - Saint-
flexibility, density, drilling of holes etc. Gobain - Gyproc
could be controlled as per requirements. Sonex Mineral Fiber Acoustic
Ceiling Tiles
It could be used relatively on smaller
surfaces and can be painted to provide
high degree of light reflection with
attractive and decorative appearance.
There are many acoustical tiles
commercially available with different
trade names.
ACOUSTICAL CEILING TILES
MINERAL FIBRE ACOUSTIC
TILES • Mineral Fibre Acoustic Tiles-
• The special features of the
mineral fibre range include
excellent sound absorption,
special anti-sag property,
superior moisture resistance,
better fire resistance, good light
reflectance and better relative
humidity properties

• This range is ideal for certain

applications like IT office,
showroom and shopping malls.
TYPE –I CEMENT-LIME- GYPSUM-MINERAL AS BINDER

A. All mineral units composed of small granules or finely

divided particles with "PORTLAND CEMENT BINDER
AKOUSTOLITH TILE : R.Gaustavino Co. Used in
monumental types ( Churches). due to their masonry like
appearances. Paint reduces absorption quality.

B. All mineral units composed of small granules or finely

divided particles with "LIME OR GYPSUM BINDER".
MUFFLETONE (12"x12"x1"): ( Celotex Corpn.) These are
cast gypsum products in standard or fissured finish, light
wt., rigid sound absorbing tiles backed by corrugated
paper. They have uniform fine textured surface.
Cemented to plaster board or concrete ceiling.
C. Units composed of small granules or finely divided
particles of mineral or vegetable origin with
incombustible mineral binder.
Celotex Corpn. Acoustic Mineral Fiber Ceiling tile
TYPE II--UNITS HAVING MECHANICALLY PERFORATED SURFACE
ARRANGED IN A REGULAR PATTERN

A. Units having a perforated surface which acts as a covering & support for
the sound absorbent material. The facing material to be strong, durable &
substantially rigid.

ACOUSTEEL : Celotex,Corpn.
ACOUSTIMENTAL : National Gypsum & co.
ARPHON : A.B. Arch ( Stockhome ,Sweden )
ARRESTONE : Armstrong Cork & co.
PERFATOTE : U.S.Gypsum & co.

In this type of unit an absorptive pad, blanket, or rigid element

(compressed mineral wool) is covered by perforated sheet metal or board,
these can be repeatedly painted without impairing absorption, but care
should be taken to not to bridge the holes with paint. Used where they are
subjected to considerable wear & tear. They are incombustible, moisture
resistant hence used in swimming pools, kitchen etc.
TYPE II--UNITS HAVING MECHANICALLY PERFORATED SURFACE
ARRANGED IN A REGULAR PATTERN

b. Units having circular perforations extending into the sound

absorbent material.
ACOUST-CELOTEX-Celotex Corpn.
These are made from felted cane fiber by a special process in the
form of light rigid tiles. Tiles may be painted repeatedly without
much reduction in sound absorptive properties. The presence of
holes in porous materials increase superficial area and increase the
absorptivity of the material. Perforations also help in concealing the
screws when fixed to wooden backing .
Size: 12"x12" & 24"x24" Th-1/2" to 1/4", Perforations - 1/8" dia,
holes at 1/2" c/c, 1/8" bevel on all sides or tongue and grooved on all
four sides.

c. Units having slots or grooves extending into the holes in the tiles.
AUDITONE : U.S. Gypsum Co. These are slotted wood fibre tiles
which are efficient. These can be painted repeatedly without loss of
sound abs. These can be nailed to joists or fixed with adhesive .
TYPE III-- UNITS HAVING FISSURED SURFACE.

CORKOUSTIC : Made of selected cork

particles .Cork is ground to a specific
particle size baked under heat &
pressure to form a block .Natural resins
in the cork hold the particles together
(no binder used) .Blocks are cut to
sizes beveled painted with two coats of
white raisin paint.

This tile is extremely moisture resistant,

heat resistant (air conditioning & winter
heating). Though tough, resilient can
be slightly bent to curved shape
(arches, vaulted ceilings)
sizes 6"x12" or 12"x12" and 1/2"th.
TYPE IV- UNITS.

a. Units of this class are made of wood shavings generally pressed

together with a mineral binder. The wood fibers may be fine, medium or
course.

ABSORB-A-NOISE & ABSORB-A-TONE----Luse Stevenson co.

b. Units compressed of fine felted vegetable fibers or wood pulp.

ACOUSTLITE : Insulite co. Made out of compressed wood pulp

( sap wood) or wood fibres Oil, Lead and other nonporous
paints are not suitable which close surface pores ,used for
control of noise , fixed by screws or nails to wooden battens at
required distance. Low cost and are available in 12"x12"x3/4'th
or 4'x8'/10'/12' panels.

c. Units composed of mineral fibers.

QT Duct liner--Celotex co.

ACOUSTICAL PLASTER AND SPRAYED ON MATERIALS : BASIC COMPOSITION

Acoustic plasters are aesthetically favorable because it

allows for seamless smooth application compared to
panels that show visible joints. Some acoustic plasters
contain aggregate, but better systems incorporate
fiber. Acoustic plasters are generally applied at a
thickness between 3mm (1/16”)and 40mm (1.5”).

Acoustic plasters consist of a base layer of absorptive

substrate panels, which are typically mineral wool, or
a non-combustible inorganic blow-glass granulate. A
first finishing layer is then applied on top of the
substrate panels and when dried, produces a first layer
of sound attenuation. A second finishing layer may also
be added to create a second system of sound
attenuation. If the second density if less than or equal
to that of the first layer, the sound attenuation of the
second layer would be greater than the first and vice
versa. This allows for the flexibility of changing the
acoustic properties of the space.
 ACOUSTICAL PLASTER AND SPRAYED ON MATERIALS https://www.acosorb.com/products/acoplaster-f

Composed of a cementitious material such as gypsum,

Portland cement .
Cotton based acoustical plaster systems are easy to install and
refinish at anytime. They can match any custom color, and even
be made to look like stone, marble, or cement. The most
common application is a silk finish, which is troweled and
installed to look perfectly smooth.

Acoustical plaster is completely fireproof, and LEED rated. It can

withstand some basic environmental turbulence, so long as the
humidity does not exceed 70%, and the system does not come
in direct contact with liquids. The plaster is porous to sound,
and other molecules can pass through with direct contact.

UNIFIL ACOUSTICAL PLASTER : Unifil is an inert (constant) feather

weight, granular substance manufactured by exploding a rare mica ore
. Other constituents are gypsum, lime or cement.
Could be used to interiors in place of regular plaster.
ACOUSTICAL PLASTER AND SPRAYED ON MATERIALS https://youtu.be/IlJz9BunUVQ

• Museums
• Auditoriums
• Libraries
• Galleries
• Performing arts centers
• Mid/high-end retail locations
• Transportation hubs
• High-end residential homes
• Education facilities
• Office lobbies and conference rooms

Until now, architects have primarily sought out and

specified a silk finish. Advancements in plaster
manufacturing techniques have led to the ability to
product custom finishes, such as stone, marble,
and cement as shown above. As of 2017, the only
manufacturer that can create these finishes is
Fellert.
The Fellert Silk finish applied in brilliant white.
ACOUSTICAL BLANKETS

Soundproof blankets are used to absorb sound and reduce

noise by creating a sound barrier. Also known as sound
barrier curtains, these sound barrier blankets can be
suspended from portable frames, floor mounted frames,
or attached to ceiling to serve as a dividing wall between
machine noise and employees.

Unlike sound panel treatments, which are designed to

attack the “path” of reflecting sound waves inside a room,
these noise reduction blanket systems are designed to
attack the “source” of the original sound and literally
“block” the noise from releasing into the room.

Noise reduction curtains are used to combat exposure to

machine noise in most any industrial, commercial or
residential application.
ACOUSTICAL BLANKETS

The core of the noise reduction curtain is

fiberglass batting insulation. Typically 2″
thick worth of this sound absorbing
material. As the sound wave enters the
curtain, the fiberglass batting will absorb
up to 75% of the echoes. In addition, the
noise “deadening” impact of blocking the
sound wave from penetrating through the
blanket is derived from the thin dense
membrane lined in the blanket called mass
loaded vinyl. This membrane is also known
as dB-Bloc.
STC Values. This is a number assigned to
the sound barrier curtain that indicates its
ability to block directional noise. The
acronym stands for Sound Transmission
Classification. The stronger the number,
the better the blanket performs.
CURTAINS

a soundproof curtain that blocks outside

noise, solving noise problems at minimal
expense and without disrupting the
comforts of spaces. Unlike other sound-
absorbing curtains, it is designed to block
sound coming in and out of your space,
rather than simply reducing echo.
 FIBRE GLASS
These fabricated thermal and acoustical material from
various forms of “FIBERLASS” insulation ( a mineral wool
made of highly resistant glass fibers) faced on one/both
sides with a flexible material like paper, muslin or glass
cloth. Sound absorption depends on thickness and density.

Absorption is optimum for 2” to 3” thick with 4 lbs.

density/cft. Thickness varies from ½” to 4”. These are light
in weight and used in broadcasting, film and television
studios.

FIBERGLASS PF (phenol–formaldehyde based) INSULATION

BOARD
It consists of specially processed and compressed fiberglass
to which thermosetting plastic is added to give rigidity. Th
¾” to 4” wt. 4lbs.to 10.5 lbs./cft.

Sizes 24” X 48” boards which could be cut to any size and
shape.
FOAM PANELS

• Wedge sound
absorbers have a
profiled face which
increases the surface
area available for
absorption. Wedges
can be an effective
treatment for flutter
echoes which can be
particularly
problematic in rooms
with hard parallel
walls.
SPECIAL AND VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBTIVE MATERIALS LIKE HELMHOLTZ,

The Helmholtz resonator is an enclosed volume of

air communicating with the outside through a
small opening.

The enclosed air resonates at a single frequency

that depends on the volume of the vessel and the
geometry of its opening.
DRAPERIES
ACOUSTIC DIFFUSERS

Sound Diffusers are tiles or panels that are

feature an uneven facing and typically a
hollow core. Also called Acoustic Diffusers,
they can be constructed from fiberglass,
wood, or even plastic.

They can feature a barrel, concave, or

convex facing. Diffuser panels typically do
not feature a flange as they are mounted
on a wall.

Diffuser tiles do typically feature a flange to

help suspend them from a standard ceiling
grid.
The sound waves travel in straight lines.
They will continue that path until they strike
an object that changes their path.

Once they strike some surface they reflect

at the opposite angle. So, a rectangular
room with parallel walls will get “slap echo”
or sound wave bouncing back and forth
between the two walls.

If an audio diffuser was placed on one of

those walls, the sound wave would reflect
more evenly and help eliminate “dead”
spots in the space.
Sound Diffusion is extremely important in
mix rooms, live performance spaces, and
home theater spaces.
Sound Diffusion Diagram
Some examples of products that offer sound diffusion :
AlphaDiffuser Fabric Wrapped Sound Diffuser
AlphaDiffuser Sound Diffuser
AlphaSorb Sound Diffuser
Barrel Sound Diffuser
Pyramid Sound Diffuser
SoundSuede Sound Diffuser
Acoustics in
Buildings and
its Whispering galleries, Echoes, flutter
echoes,
Integration
with
Architectural room resonances, sound foci,
Design dead spots,

ultrasonic and infra range sound.

Reverberation and reverberation

time,

Unit II : Acoustical open window unit,

Materials and b)Theoretics Absorption coefficients of
Equipment. important materials used for
acoustical treatment.
RT calculations using Sabine’s
formula.

Effect of RT on speech and music.

Acoustical design

recommendation for building

examples with RT calculations.

Whispering galleries, Echoes,
flutter echoes,
• Whispering Galleries : A
phenomenon associated with the
reflections from curved surfaces
especially in high frequencies which
travel or creep around a large concave
surface.
• (Ex: St. Paul’s Cathedral in London,
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur.) It could be
heard up to 200’-0” wherein circular,
elliptical structures, curved surfaces are
continuous for a long distance.
• ECHOES : Reflected sound naturally
travels more distance than direct
sound. If the distance between these
two paths is greater than 19.80M or
65’-0’ (0.058 seconds) reflected sound
could be heard distinctly as a separate
sound which is known as echo. Even if it
is greater than 15.25 M or 50’-0’ it will
create blur or masking effect on
original sound.
Flutter echoes
It occurs when a pair of walls are parallel with
highly reflective surfaces. An impulsive sound such
as handclap produces a multiple echo as the sound
is reflected back and forth between the parallel
walls. (more the distance, less is the effect).
It usually occurs in uncarpeted rooms where ceiling
and floor are parallel and highly reflective. This
could be avoided by using non-parallel walls or walls
broken with openings, shelves and hangings etc.

In short , the geometrical study of sound

paths in rooms is a valuable guide to
practical acoustic design wherein the
shorter wavelength sounds play very
Sound bounces back and forth
important part in the proper hearing of both between the parallel reflective walls
speech and music.
Room resonances

The word resonance comes from Latin and means to

"resound" - to sound out together with a loud
sound. Resonance is a common cause of sound
production in musical instruments.

Musical instruments are set into vibrational motion

at their natural frequency when a person hits, strikes
or somehow disturbs the object.

Resonance - when one object vibrating at the same

natural frequency of a second object, forces that
second object into vibrational motion.
 RESONANCE
• The tuning fork is the object that forced the air inside of the
resonance tube into resonance. As the tones of fork vibrate at
their own natural frequency, they create sound waves in the
resonance tube. These impinging sound waves produced by the
tuning fork force air inside of the resonance tube to vibrate at
the same frequency.
• Resonance only occurs when the first object is vibrating at the
natural frequency of the second object. So if the frequency at
which the tuning fork vibrates is not identical to one of the
natural frequencies of the air column resonance will not occur.
• But the location of the water level can be altered by raising and
lowering a water level to match to the frequency at which the
tuning fork vibrates. When they match the tuning fork forces
the air column inside of the resonance tube to vibrate at its own
natural frequency and resonance is achieved. The result of
resonance is always a big vibration - that is, a loud sound.
room resonances – occur when
certain wavelengths of specific
audio frequencies correlate to
the fundamental resonances of
a room. These frequencies can
boom and produce longer
release times.
 • SOUND FOCI : concentration
of sound or focusing effect of
sound that is created by
concave surfaces at one or
more places due to non
absorption is called sound foci.

• DEAD SPOTS : one can listen

well in all parts of a room or
auditorium except in a certain
spot or rows of seats. This is
because of localized
concentration of sound (sound
foci). These spaces receive
insufficient sound because
most of the reflected sound is
concentrated else where.
Sound foci, dead spots These regions of deficiency are
called dead spots.
ULTRASONIC AND INFRA RANGE SOUND

BELOW 20Hz.--- INFRA RANGE (elephants)

ABOVE 20,000Hz. ULTRASONIC (bats )

Bats use sound waves (ultrasonic) to locate their prey, so they don't have to be
able to see the insects they're hunting. Flying at night gives them an advantage
over their prey because it's harder for the insects to see them coming.

The lowest frequency (infra range) of an elephant rumble is 14 to 35 hertz.

Can hear up to 4 km. distance in normal condition at daytime and up to 10 km.

distance at night.
 Reverberation
• Acoustical phenomenon of reverberation is inherent in
every indoor space. In a perfectly sound reflecting room
(rather difficult situation to create ) a sound once initiated
in that space would continue forever perfectly reflected
between the wall, ceiling and floor surfaces; this
lingering of sound energy when sound source has
ceased is known as REVERBERATION.

• With each reflection sound energy is lost.

• “Acoustical treatment” is to give “FINITE” length of time in

which LINGERING sound energy can be heard. This is
defined as the Reverberation time, the time required by the
sound energy to decay 60 dbs.
• Or one-millionth of its initial intensity, (generally referred to
the time at 500 or 1000 Hz.Or average of both.
 REVERBERATION TIME
BUILD UP AND DECAY OF SOUND
• Reverberation is the smooth decay of sound as it reflects from surface
to surface in the room, gradually losing energy on each contact with
absorbing material. Some reverberation is always desirable to give it
life and character whereas echo is undesirable.
• Quality of sound can be achieved by BALANCING the “early” and “late”
sound energies.
• Reverberation time is defined as the time during which the sound energy
density falls from its steady state.
• Source of sound after buildup stops or begin to decay and this process
Reverberation is
takes certain interval of time. The _time_ taken by the sound to decay
something quite
to one millionth of its initial value (i.e 60 dBs) is termed as different from echo.
REVERBERATION TIME. Echo is the distinct
A whisper is about 20 dB. A normal conversation is typically from 60 repetition of a sound
to 70 dB, and a noisy factory from 90 to 100 dB. Loud thunder is reflected from a
distant surface.
approximately 110 dB, and 120 dB borders on the threshold of pain.
OPEN WINDOW UNIT (OR SABINE UNIT NAMED AFTER W.C SABINE)

Surface absorbing 25% of the incident sound has a

coefficient of 0.25 and 4 times of this will be
required to furnish 100% absorption which is
equal to one open window unit or Sabine unit.
An open window, for example, has an
absorption coefficient of 1.0, since it can reflect
nothing.

ABSORPTON COEFFICIENT: Ratio of absorbed

energy to the total incidental energy of sound.
In porous material sound penetrates deep into
pores which encounter friction which is converted
into heat energy resulting in absorption.

All materials will absorb at least some of the sound

energy that impinges upon them. An open window
is a near-perfect sound absorber.
 ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS OF IMPORTANT MATERIALS

• ABSORPTION
COEFFICIENTS FREQUENCY Hz
125 250 500 1000 2000

• MASONRY WALLS
• Porous concrete blocks 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,08 0,14
• Standard brickwork 0,05 0,04 0,02 0,04 0, 05

• Ceramic tiles with smooth

surface 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02 0,02

• Plaster on solid wall 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,08 0,04

• GLASS AND GLAZING
• 4mm glass 0,30 0,20 0,10 0,07
• 6mm glass 6mm 0,10 0,06 0,04 0,03
• Wood boards on joists 0,15 0.20 0,10 0,10
• timber wall paneling 0,18 0,34 0,42 0,59 0,83
•
 Absorption coefficients of important materials
used for acoustical treatment.

• MINERAL WOOL AND FOAMS

• Glass wool 25mm 0,12 0,28 0,55 0,71 0,74
• Rock wool 50mm 0,15 0,60 0,90

• WALL TREATMENTS & CONSTRUCTIONS

• Cork tiles 25mm on solid
backing 0,05 0,10 0,20 0,55 0,60
• Cork board, 25mm 0,03 0,05 0,17 0,52 0,50
• 25mm thick hair felt 25mm 0,10 0,00 0,70 0,00
• Fibreboard on solid backing 0,05 0,00 0,15 0,00 0,3
• Acoustic plaster 25mm 0,03 0,15 0,50 0,80 0,85
• Curtains hung in folds 0,05 0,15 0,35 0,40 0,50
• Lightweight curtains 0,05 0,06 0,39 0,63 0,70
• Curtains (medium fabrics) 0,05 0,00 0,25 0,00 0,30 0,4
• FLOORS
• Smooth marble or
terrazzo slabs 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,02
• Wooden floor on joists 0,15 0,11 0,10 0,07 0,06
• Parquet fixed on concrete 0,04 0,04 0,07 0,06 0,06
• Linoleum stuck to concrete 0,02 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,04
• Carpet on wood floor 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,30
• Stone floor 0,02 0,00 0,02 0,00 0,05
• PANELS AND DOORS
• Solid timber door 0,14 0,10 0,06 0,08 0,10
• Acoustic door 0,35 0,39 0,44 0,49 0,54
• CEILINGS
• Mineral wool tiles, glued/
screwed to soffit 0,06 0,40 0,75 0,95 0,9
• Plasterboard 10mm thick 0,25 0,70 0,85 0,55 0,40
• Plywood, 5mm, on battens
• airspace filled in glass wool 0,40 0,35 0,20 0,15 0,0
• AUDIENCE AND SEATING
• Children, seated in plastic
or metal chairs 0,28 0,00 0,33 0,00 0,37
• Adults per person seated 0,33 0,40 0,44 0,45 0,45
• Empty plastic chairs 0,07 0,00 0,14 0,00 0,14
• Adults in plastic 0,30 0,00 0,40 0,00 0,43
• Adults in padded chairs 0,16 0,00 0,40 0,00 0,44
• Fully upholstered seats 0,12 0,00 0,28 0,00 0,32
• Auditorium seat, unoccupied 0,13 0,33 0,59 0,58 0,61
• Auditorium seat, occupied 0,37 0,48 0,68 0,73 0,77
• Orchestra with instruments
on podium per person 0,27 0,53 0,67 0,93 0,87
• Wood platform with large
space beneath 0,40 0,30 0,20 0,17 0,15
RT
calculations
using
Sabine’s
formula.
SABINE AND EYRING EQUATIONS
In this study two classical equations, the Sabine and the Eyring, for the
prediction of RT were applied to the churches measured.

SABINE EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / A

EYRING EQUATION RT = 0.16 V / [Aair - ST (1 - αavg)]

where:

V - Volume (m3); RT - Expected Reverberation Time (s);

A - Total Absorption (m2); αavg - Absorption Coefficient (avg. all

surfaces); Aair - Air Absorption (m2); ST - Surfaces Total Area (m2).
 ACOUSTICAL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate R.T. from the following data for a Board Room
having seating capacity of 100 when it is full & empty.

Sl.No ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS. COE TOTAL ABS

1 Concrete floor 200.00 sqm 0.02 4.00

2 Celotex fibre board 175.00 sqm 0.40 70.00
3 Carpets 150.00 sqm 0.15 22.50
4 Plaster to ceiling 150.00 sqm 0.20 30.00
5 False ceiling 210.00 sqm 0.10 21.00
6 Draperies 120.00 sqm 0.35 42.00
7 Fibre glass cloth 50.00 sqm 0.79 39.50
8 Air 600.00 cum --- ------
9 Empty chair 100.00 nos 0.18/C 18.00
10 Audience 100.00 nos 0.32/P 32.00
Total ABS = 279.00

1. R.T. when full R.T. = 0.16V = 0.16 x 600 = 0.34

SA 279
2. R.T. when Empty SA = 279.00 – 32 = 247, 0.16 x 600 = 0.39
247
 2. From the following data calculate R.T. and additional abs. reqd.

Suggest special materials to be used to finish the remainder of the required

abs. Conference hall size = 15.00 x 25.00 x 6.00, Total abs. reqd = Sa =
270.00

Sl .No ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS.COE. TOTAL ABS

1 Floor cork tile on conc. Floor 375.00 sqm 0.05 18.75
incl. risers
2 Ceiling plaster 350.00 sqm 0.02 7.00
3 Window 6mm glass 35.00 sqm 0.04 1.40
4 Plywood panels 175.00 sqm 0.15 26.25
5 Perforated ply with 5mm 45.00 sqm 0.75 33.75
mineral wool
6 Seats 500.00 nos 0.15 75.00
TOTAL = 162.15
• R.T. = 0.16V = 0.16 x 2250 = 2.22 seconds
Sa 162.15
• Additional abs. required 270 – 162.15 = 107.85

• SOLUTION: To get the remainder of the abs. required following additional

acoustical treatment additional acoustical treatment is suggested.

• 1. Plywood panels 100.00 sqm 0.15 15.00

• 2. Perforated ply with 5mm mineral wool 60.00 sqm 0.75 45.00
• 3. Cushioned chairs (increased th.) 500.00 nos. 0.10 50.00

TOTAL : 110.00
• Reqd. R.T.= 0.16 x 2250 = 1.33
270.00
• This meets the requirement of additional absorption (5% margin allowed)
which reduces R.T. to 1.33 second
3. Calculate the total interior surface (S) and the no. of cushioned chairs
to be used to get optimum reverberation time of 1:00 at 500 cycles.

DATA: RT= 1.00 second, value of α= 0.23, volume = 2000.00 cum

ABSORPTIVE MATERIAL AREA ABS.COE. TOTAL ABS.

1. CORK CARPET 65.00sqm 0.05 3.25

2 MARBLEX FLOORING 345.00 sqm 0.04 13.80
3. WOOD PALELLING 180.00 sqm 0.06 10.80
4. CEILING 345.00 sqm 0.06 20.70
5. STAGE OPENING 7 8.00 sqm 0.40 31.20
6. REMAINING WALLS 2 25.00 sqm 0.06 13.50
7. UN-UPHOLSTERED CHAIRS 500.00 no.s 0.03/C 15.00
8. CUSHIONED CHAIRS ------------- 0.25/C
9. AUDIENCE 500.00 no.s 0.32/p 160.00
1238.00 268.25

TOTAL ABSORPTIVE (S) SURFACE REQUIRED FOR R.T 1.00

• S = 0.16 X 2000 = 320.00 , whereas per data we are
getting only 268.25 i.e

320.00-268.25 = 51.75
• it means we are short of 51.75 abs. which can be
compensated by providing cushioned chairs.

So the unknown no. of unknown cushioned

chairs X is given by
X X 0.25 = 51.75

X = 51.75
0.25
= 207.00 NUMBERS OF CUSHIONED CHAIRS

No. of cushioned chairs required to get optimum R. T.

51.75 divided by 0.25 = 207.00 nos.
4. Calculate R.T. at 125Hz, 500Hz and 2000 Hz for a hall with following data.
NOTE: floor coverage by audience reduces the absorption by 40% at 125 and
500 Hz and by 60% at 2000 Hz
Sl MATERIAL AREA IN 125 Hz 500 Hz 2000 Hz
No SQM.

1 Plaster on brick 265.00 0.02 5.30 0.02 5.30 0.04 10.60

2 3mm glass 43.00 0.30 12.90 0.10 4.30 0.05 2.15

wool
3 Stage boards 70.00 0.15 10.50 0.10 7.00 0.10 7.00
on joists
4 Wood wool 60.00 0.10 6.00 0.40 24.00 0.60 36.00
glass 25mm
5 Ceiling plaster 310.00 0.20 62.00 0.10 31.00 0.04 12.40
6 Plate glass 96.00 0.10 9.60 0.04 3.84 0.02 1.92
screen
7 Wood block 300.00 0.05 15.00 0.05 15.00 0.10 30.00
floor
8 Audience 250.00 0.17/p 42.50 0.43/p 107.50 0.47/p 117.50
9 Air 2500.00cum - - - - 0.01 25.00
Total
163.80 197.94 242.57
 125 Hz. 500 Hz. 2000.00 Hz.
163.80 197.94 242.57

Note: Abs. is reduced by 40%

i.e. 40% of 15 = 6.00 - 6.00 - 6.00 - 18.00

R.T. @ 125 = 0.16 x 2500 = 2.53 0.16 x 2500 = 2.08 0.16 x 2500 = 1.78

157.80(163.80-6) 191.94(197.94-6) 224.57 (242.57-18)

Find out total absorption to be provided in a school auditorium accommodating 800 persons.
Assumptions: Volume of the hall is considered as 3.50cum. per persons.

Optimum Reverberation Time = 1.25 seconds

Abs. Coe. Of cushioned chairs = 0.30 and unoccupied chairs = 0.16
Solution: The total absorption necessary to obtain optimum R.T.
S = 0.16V 0.16 x 2800 = 358.00sqm
R.T 1.25
Considering that the hall is 2/3full,
Absorption due to audience = 0.30 x 2/3 x 800 = 160.00sqm.
Abs. due to unoccupied chairs = 0.16 x 1/3 x 800 = 43.00sqm
203.00 sqm

Absorption to be provided by acoustical material 358.00 – 203.00 = 155sqm.

Suggestions

1. Perforated jolly boards 100.00 sqm x 0.55 (abs.coe.) = 55.00sqm

2. pulp boards 80.00sqm x 0.99 (abs.coe.) = 79.00sqm
3. Carpets, draperies, floor, untreated wall and ceilings etc = 21.00sqm
155.00sqm
 EFFECT OF R.T. ON SPEECH AND MUSIC
• Music is the other common victim of inappropriate RT60. A pipe organ sounds
like a huge harmonica in a very dead room it may be loud but no character.
• Speech and music are not the only sounds that persist in a reverberant room.
Every noise keeps going and going and going and all of these sounds keep
rattling around through the highly reverberant room.
• Elegant compromise is a careful balance between the acoustical design and
the sound system design that can preserve the musical acoustics desired,
and deliver the speech intelligibility required. Excessive RT60 is the number
one problem we see in spaces intended for music performance.
• Reverberation effects are often used in studios to add depth to sounds. Basic
factors that affect a room's reverberation time include the size and shape of
the enclosure as well as the materials used in the construction of the room.
Every object placed within the enclosure can also affect this reverberation
time, including people and their belongings.
• Rooms used for speech typically need a shorter reverberation time so that
speech can be understood more clearly. If the reflected sound from one
syllable is still heard when the next syllable is spoken, it may be difficult to
understand what was said. "Cat", "Cab", and "Cap" may all sound very
 EFFECT OF R.T. ON SPEECH AND MUSIC

• Reverberation occurs when a sound hits any hard surface and reflects back
to the listener at varying times and amplitudes to create a complex echo.
• What is a good reverberation time?
• The optimum reverberation time for an auditorium or room of course
depends upon its intended use. Around 2 seconds is desirable for a medium-
sized, general purpose auditorium that is to be used for both speech and
music. A classroom should be much shorter, less than a second.
• What is difference between echo and reverberation?
• Echo is a single reflection of a sound wave off a surface. Reverberation is
the sound or the pattern created by the superposition of such echoes. ... A
reverberation can occur when sound wave is reflected by a nearby objects.
• If the reverberation time is too short, tonal balance and loudness of music
may suffer.
RECOMMENDED
REVERBERATION
TIME
Acoustics in
Buildings and
its
AI (Articulation Index), STI,
Integration (Speech
with
Architectural Transmission Index).
Design

RASTI (Room Acoustic Speech

Transmission Index),

Unit II : Acoustical c) Introduction to

Materials and Acoustical Tools and Use of SLM (Sound Level Meter),

Equipment. Measurements

sound attenuation and STC

ratings—(sound transmission class)

sound reinforcement systems.

Articulation Index (AI)

In audiology, the Articulation Index

(AI) is a tool used to predict the
amount of speech that is audible to a
patient with a specific hearing loss.
The AI figure for a given patient can
range from zero to one, representing the
proportion of the average speech signal
that is audible. The closer the AI is to
one, or 100 percent, the better the
person should be able to hear
speech. The calculation is also used in
industrial settings for the design of
safety devices, such as flight helmets,
where audio signals are required to be
clearly heard.
 AI (ARTICULATION INDEX)
• The Articulation Index (AI) is a tool used to predict the amount of speech that is
audible to a patient with a specific hearing loss. It range from zero to one,
representing the average speech signal that is audible.
• The closer the AI is to one, or 100 percent, the better the person should be able to
hear speech.
• It has a value that ranges between 0% (no speech understood) to 100% (all speech
understood).
• The speech range covers from 200 Hertz to about 6000 Hertz. When Articulation
Index is calculated, the background sound levels that occur within this frequency
range are given the highest importance, since they will interfere with human speech.
• If the level of background noise is high enough, it will mask other sounds, including
human speech--in other words it covers it up, or blocks it.
• The human ear, due to the construction of the hearing organ (called the cochlea),
tends to aggregate sound into these frequency bands. These bands are called
octave bands.
• The sound levels of one third octave bands covering from 200 Hz to 6300 Hz are
used to calculate Articulation Index.
Speech Transmission Index (STI)
Speech Transmission Index (STI) is a measure of
speech transmission quality. The absolute
measurement of speech intelligibility is a
complex science.
The STI measures some physical characteristics
of a transmission channel (a room, electro-
acoustic equipment, telephone line, etc.), and
expresses the ability of the channel to carry
across the characteristics of a speech signal. STI
is a well-established objective measurement
predictor of how the characteristics of the
transmission channel affect speech intelligibility.
The influence that a transmission channel has
on speech intelligibility is dependent on:
• the speech level
• frequency response of the channel
• non-linear distortions
• background noise level
• quality of the sound reproduction equipment
• echos (reflections with delay > 100ms)
• the reverberation time
• psychoacoustic effects (masking effects)
Figure 8: Half of the intelligibility window is covered, resulting in an Articulation Index of 50%.

Because half of each octave band is covered, the coverage values are
all 0.5---50%
 STI (SPEECH TRANSMISSION INDEX).

• The Speech Transmission Index is an objective, physical

measure of speech transmission quality. The STI is a 0 to 1
index, this means that perfectly intelligible speech, when
transferred with STI of 1, will remain perfectly intelligible. The
closer the STI value approaches zero, the more information is
lost.

• The STI is extensively used in room acoustics, for instance to

assess intelligibility in auditoria, churches and conference
rooms.

• The scientific principle on which the STI is based, is that

information in speech is represented acoustically in the form of
modulations. A speech utterance is essentially nothing more
than a sequence of modulated tonal and noisy sounds. Loss of
these modulations translates into loss of intelligibility. The STI is
calculated directly from the Modulation Transfer Function.
 AI, STI, RASTI.
• (AI) Articulation Index a measure of speech intelligibility influenced by acoustical
environment. The higher the number the higher the intelligibility of words and sentences
understood from 0-100%. An articulation index of less than 0.3, generally suggests
unintelligible speech and one over 0.7 indicates excellent intelligibility.
• (STI) Speech Transmission Index is a measure of speech transmission quality. The
absolute measurement of speech intelligibility is a complex science. The STI measures
some physical characteristics of a transmission channel (a room, electro-acoustic
equipment, telephone line, etc.), and expresses the ability of the channel to carry
across the characteristics of a speech signal.
• STI is a well-established objective measurement predictor of how the characteristics of
the transmission channel affect speech intelligibility.
• RASTI-method (Room Acoustic Speech Transmission Index) was developed in 1979.
Different instruments were developed for the measurement according to this standard.
A typical measurement time was 10 to 15 seconds. The RASTI method only considers
two octave bands 500 Hz and 2 kHz. Due to the simplicity in use, the RASTI-
instruments were used also for applications beyond the main design goal – room
acoustics. The RASTI-value is often used for assessing the quality of public address
systems.
 STI—RASTI--STIPA
• STI - Speech Transmission Index is a method of measuring speech
intelligibility in noisy and/or reverberant locations. A number between 0
and 1 quantifies the speech intelligibility and is often implemented in
two versions RASTI (Room Acoustic Speech Transmission Index) and
STIPA. (Speech Transmission Index for Public Address)

• RASTI - Rapid Speech Transmission Index is an objective way of

measuring speech intelligibility. It is measured by placing a
loudspeaker, which transmits sound from the location of the person
speaking, and a microphone where the listeners are situated.

• STIPA - Speech Transmission Index for Public Address systems an

alternative to RASTI with public address and other electro-acoustic
devices in mind, was developed more recently resulting in a simple
number between 0 and 1
 USE OF SLM (SOUND LEVEL METER)

• SLM / Noise Level Meter. A

sound level meter is a
measuring instrument used
to assess noise or sound
levels by measuring sound
pressure. A sound level
meter uses a microphone to
capture sound.

• A sound level meter is used

for acoustic (sound that
travels through air)
measurements. It is
commonly a hand-held
instrument with a
microphone. The diaphragm
of the microphone responds
to changes in air pressure
caused by sound waves.
NOISE MEASUREMENT USING SLM
• A sound level meter is a measuring instrument used to assess noise or sound
levels by measuring sound pressure. The sound is then evaluated within the
sound level meter and acoustic measurement values are shown on the
display of the sound level meter.

• With a portable sound level meter, industrial hygiene and workplace safety
professionals can measure sound levels in multiple locations to ensure
environmental conditions fall within recommended exposure limits (RELs).
Some sound level meter devices can be permanently installed for continuous
monitoring of sound levels at a work or job site.
• For occupational hygiene purposes, the sound pressure level is measured to
determine noise exposures. Various instruments and techniques may be
used. The choice depends on the workplace noise and the information
needed. However, the first step is to determine if there is a noise problem in
the workplace.
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY NOISE PROBLEMS IN
THE WORKPLACE?
• The first step is to determine whether or not noise is a potential problem in
your workplace. A walk-through survey helps in making this decision. The
indicators of potentially hazardous noise level include:
• Noise is louder than busy city traffic.
• People have to raise their voice to talk to
someone at one metre (3 feet) away.
• At the end of work shift people have to increase the volume of their radio or
TV to a level too loud for others.
• After working for a few years at that workplace, employees find it difficult to
communicate in a crowd or party situation where there are other sounds or
many voices.
• Noise measurement data from studies in similar situations are very helpful in
assessing the potential noise problem.
 APPLICATIONS OF SOUND LEVEL METERS

• There are many applications for Sound level meters but the most common are Noise
at Work/Occupational Noise and Environmental and Community Noise. There are also
other more specialised applications such as Vehicle Noise Testing.
• Noise at Work & Occupational Noise-- The aim is to reduce the risk of hearing
damage for employees, requiring the reduction of the noise at source where possible
and the provision of hearing protection were necessary.
• Environmental & Community Noise
• The increasing awareness of the public of environmental issues such as CO2
emissions, carbon footprints, larger airports, higher road traffic levels. In addition to
this, the expansion of towns and cities, driven by the demand for housing has created
noise. Industries are now required to monitor their environmental noise impact and
where operations are 24 hours, to carry out continuous noise monitoring.
• There are many applications where noise from vehicle is important. One of these is in
the verification and testing of cars, trucks and motorbikes to ensure that they comply
with any noise limits.
• The microphone can be placed at the specified position, typically 45 degrees and
0.5m from the exhaust of the vehicle under test.
 SOUND ATTENUATION
• To make slender, fine, or small: The drought attenuated the river to a narrow
channel.
• To reduce in force, value, amount, or degree; weaken: Medicine attenuated
the fever's effect.
• To lessen the density of; rarefy.
• attenuation
• Decrease in intensity of a signal, beam, or wave as a result of absorption of
energy and of scattering out of the path of a detector---the inverse square of
distance effect.
Acoustic attenuation is a measure of the energy loss of sound propagation
in media. When sound propagates in such media, there is always thermal
consumption of energy caused by viscosity.
• When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
... Absorption is the conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy.
The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called attenuation.
 STC
• Sound transmission class (STC) is a rating of sound isolation of a
building wall assembly. The higher the STC rating, the better sound
isolation the wall assembly is to achieve. STC is widely used to rate
interior partitions, ceilings/floors, doors, and windows.
• STC rating of 38-42 is considered good soundproofing for residential.
STC rating of 50-65 is professional, commercial soundproofing for
recording studios, etc. These terms and definitions are related to
Sound Transmission Class and will help provide the full picture of how
sound is measured.
• effective STC rating of 55 is recommended, and 60+ is ideal,
especially in rooms where there is going to be music related noise.
• When people are evaluating building materials and acoustical
products for sound reduction, they rely on the sound transmission
class or STC rating of the product. By understanding this rating of
materials, we know how much sound will be blocked from going through
those materials.
• The sound transmission class was first introduced in 1961 and
has since become the standard single-number metric to
describe sound blocking materials. People often mention NRC
and STC ratings in similar contexts, but they are slightly
different rating systems. While the STC rating tells us how
much sound is blocked from going through a product, the NRC
Rating tells us how much sound is absorbed by a product.

• The first step in rating a product is to determine the

transmission loss of the material(TL) at various frequencies.
Each transmission loss value is plotted on a graph then
compared to a standard set of STC contours, with the closet
matching contour determining the STC rating of the material. If
your results most closely resemble the curve for an STC rating
of 50, then that would be the rating for the material you tested.
 SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS
• A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones, signal processors,
amplifiers, and loudspeakers in enclosures all controlled by a mixing that makes live
or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or
more distant audience.
• In many situations, a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance or alter the
sound of the sources on the stage, typically by using electronic effects, such as
reverberation, as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered.
• A sound reinforcement system(SR) for a rock concert in a stadium may be very
complex, including hundreds of microphones, complex live sound mixing and signal
processing systems, tens of thousands of watts of amplifier power, and multiple
loudspeaker arrays, all overseen by a team of audio engineers and technicians.
• On the other hand, a sound reinforcement system can be as simple as a small public
address (PA) system, consisting of a single microphone connected to a 100 watt
amplified loudspeaker for a singer-guitarist playing in a small coffeehouse.
• In both cases, these systems reinforce sound to make it louder or distribute it to a
wider audience. In some regions or markets, the distinction between the two terms is
important, though the terms are considered interchangeable in many professional
circles
 SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM
• A basic sound reinforcement system that would be used in a
small music venue for the audience are to the left and right of
the stage.

• The main loudspeakers ---A typical sound reinforcement system

consists of microphones, which convert sound energy such as a
person singing into an electric signal, signal processors which
alter the signal characteristics (e.g., equalizers that adjust the
bass and treble, compressors that reduce signal peaks, etc.),
amplifiers, which produce a powerful version of the resulting
signal which convert the signal back into sound energy .

• These primary parts involve varying numbers of individual

components to achieve the desired goal of reinforcing and
clarifying the sound to the audience, performers and other
individuals.
 MASKING EFFECT OF SOUND.
• Audio masking is the effect by which a faint, but audible sound becomes
inaudible in the presence of another louder audible sound,
• Masking is the process by which one sound is raised by the presence of
another sound. ... The loud sound has a greater masking effect.
• Sound masking is the inclusion of generated sound (commonly, referred to
as "white noise" or "pink noise") into an environment to mask unwanted
sound. ... Sound masking is applied to an entire area to improve acoustical
satisfaction, thus improving the acoustical privacy of the space.
• White Noise and Pink Noise---The technique to address privacy issues in
the open plan and closed office environments and reduce noise pollution is
called sound masking, which uses a mix of "white noise" and "pink noise".
• In sound masking, a precise electronic sound generator, providing shaped
"noise", is fed to an amplifier that supplies an array of specialized wide-
dispersion loudspeakers.
• To most people, white noise sounds high-pitched, but this is because the
number of frequencies (hertz) doubles with each rising octave.
 WHITE NOISE
• White noise is a type of noise that is produced by combining
sounds of all different frequencies together. If you took all of the
imaginable tones that a human can hear and combined them
together, you would have white noise. The adjective "white" is
used to describe this type of noise because of the way white
light works. White light is light that is made up of all of the
different colors (frequencies) of light combined together.
• In the same way, white noise is a combination of all of the
different frequencies of sound. You can think of white noise as
20,000 tones all playing at the same time.
• Rain in Forest is a White Noise. Sleep, Study, Soothe a Baby |
Rain falls in the forest, creating a soothing white noise.
• Because white noise contains all frequencies, it is
frequently used to mask other sounds.
• If you are in a hotel and voices from the room next-door are
leaking into your room, you might turn on a fan to drown out the
voices. The fan produces a good approximation of white noise.
 PINK NOISE
• Pink noise is a filtered sound that contains equal energy in
every octave, compensating for the increasing quantity of
different Hz levels. “Pink” has been said to refer to “human
friendly” noise. Pink noise contains no distracting variations or
patterns it is like a sound of soft airflow.
• Loudspeaker units to be spaced out, providing a uniform
volume level over the whole covered area No high or low
spots where the system may call attention to itself. The overall
volume to be calculated by analysing the ambient noise present
in the area and set to become part of the normal working
environment - typically between 40-45dB.
• Absorb and attenuate noise by using high performance acoustic
ceilings Block sound with effective furniture systems (such as
dividers).
• Pink noise is acoustical energy distributed uniformly throughout
the audio spectrum. Most people perceive pink noise as having
uniform spectral power density -- the same apparent loudness at
all frequencies.