Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

Alternative To Practical on
Capacitors
(SAMPLE ONLY)

Course: BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering

Level: Year 1-Semester 2
Module Name: Physics for Engineers 2
Module Code: ELEC 1201(1)
Submitted To:
Deadline for Submission:
Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

Table of Content
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................... 1
2.0 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED .......................................................................................................... 2
2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS ................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR ....................................3
2.2.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR ................................3
3.0 DATA PROVIDED ........................................................................................................................ 3
3.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR .......................................... 3
3.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR ...................................... 4
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR .......................................... 5
4.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR ...................................... 6
5.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 8
6.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 9

List of tables
Table 1. List of equipment ...................................................................................................................... 2
Table 2. Theoretical and experimental values of XC............................................................................... 4
Table 3. Difference between some amended values of theoretical XC and experimental XC of table 2 . 8
Table 4. Uncertainty in apparatus ........................................................................................................... 8

List of figures
Figure 1. Symbol for capacitor (Anon., 2013) ........................................................................................ 1
Figure 2. Electrolytic capacitor ............................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3. Connection wires ..................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 4. Resistors .................................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 5. D.C supply ............................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 6. Signal generator ....................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 7. C.R.O ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 8. Circuit set up 1......................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 9 Circuit set up 2.......................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 10. Signal obtained on C.R.O ...................................................................................................... 3
Figure 11. Charging process ................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 12. Discharging process............................................................................................................... 5
Figure 13. Charging and discharging process combined ........................................................................ 6

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This practical consists in studying the behaviour of capacitors in d.c and a.c circuits. The
practical is divided into 2 subparts:
i) The first part is to obtain the charging and discharging profiles of a capacitor in a d.c
circuit.
ii) The second part is to obtain values for the capacitive reactance of a capacitor in series with
a resistor in an a.c circuit.
A capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an
electrical charge producing a potential difference (static voltage) across its plates. In schematic
diagrams, a capacitor is represented by the following symbol:

Figure 1. Symbol for capacitor (Anon., 2013)

When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on
one plate while a corresponding and opposite negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other
plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one plate a charge of the same sign will
depart from the -ve plate. This sets up a potential difference across the plates. Capacitance(C) is
measured in Farad, F. Capacitors can be used in both d.c and a.c circuits. However, it will
behave differently in either of the circuits.
In a d.c circuit, a capacitor will go through only two processes namely charging and
discharging. When a capacitor is initially connected to a d.c power supply, a current flows
through it causing it to charge. This process is called charging and it will stop once the potential
difference across the plates of the capacitor has reached the same voltage as the power supply.
At this point, the capacitor is fully charged and no current flows through the capacitor. If a
charged capacitor is connected in parallel or in series with a load in a closed circuit, the
capacitor will act as a power supply and provide voltage to the load thus discharging itself. This
process is called discharging.
In an a.c circuit, the capacitor charges and discharges continuously at a rate which is
proportional to the frequency (f) of the voltage applied. This is because a.c is a variable current
which keeps changing direction. Capacitors have a resistance called capacitive reactance (XC)
and it is calculated as follows:
1
𝑋𝐶 = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝒆𝒒 𝟏
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where frequency (f) of the a.c supply is measured in Hertz (Hz) and capacitance (C) is
measured in Farad.

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

 Investigate the charging and discharging process of a capacitor in a d.c circuit.
 Investigate changes in capacitive reactance in an a.c circuit according to changes in
frequency.
 Properly set up circuits with capacitors.
 Calculate capacitive reactance using the formula at different frequencies.
 Observe and analyse trend of values.
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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

2.0 METHODOLOGY
2.1 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Equipment Quantity Photo Description

Capacitor is a simple
passive device that can store
an electrical charge on its
Electrolytic plates when connected to a
2 voltage source.
capacitor
A 100 μF and 470nF
electrolytic capacitors are
Figure 2. Electrolytic capacitor used in this experiment.
Copper wires insulated with
a plastic coating that allows
current to flow from one end
Connecting As to the other.
wires required

Figure 3. Connection wires

A resistor is an electrical
component which creates
resistance to the flow of
electric current around a
Resistors 2 circuit. Its resistance is
given by the 4 coloured
bands and is measured in
Figure 4. Resistors ohms (Ω).
An analog D.C supply acts
as source of power for a
circuit and it delivers a
Analog D.C constant voltage as specified
1
supply by its settings. The voltage
applied can be varied using
its settings.
Figure 5. D.C supply
A device that is connected
to a power supply and can
generate AC at a specific
Signal frequency and at maximum
1
generator voltage.

Figure 6. Signal generator

A C.R.O is used to observe
the variation in an electrical
Cathode Ray signal, such as voltage and
Oscilloscope 1 current over time. The
(C.R.O) signal against time is
displayed on a monitor.
Figure 7. C.R.O

Table 1. List of equipment

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

2.2.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Figure 8. Circuit set up 1

2.2.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR

Figure 9 Circuit set up 2

3.0 DATA PROVIDED

3.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Figure 10. Signal obtained on C.R.O

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

3.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR

XC XC
Frequency,
VR /V IC /A (Theoretical) / (Experimental) /
f /Hz
Ω Ω
1000 0.590 0.0059 3386 339.0
2000 1.19 0.0119 1693 168.1
3000 1.80 0.0180 1129 111.1
4000 2.40 0.0240 846.6 83.33
5000 3.09 0.0309 677.3 64.72
6000 3.59 0.0359 564.4 55.71
7000 4.33 0.0433 483.4 46.19
8000 4.78 0.0478 423.3 41.84
9000 5.52 0.0552 376.3 36.23
10000 6.35 0.0635 338.6 31.50
Table 2. Theoretical and experimental values of XC

Where:
𝑉𝐶
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑋𝐶 = Ω ; VC = 2 V (according to lab sheet)
𝐼𝐶

1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑋𝐶 = Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 PART A: CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
Discuss what is observed on the C.R.O during charging and discharging of a capacitor?

Figure 11. Charging process

As the capacitor is charging, bigger cycles are observed on the C.R.O screen, that is, the
amplitude of the cycles gradually increase. As the capacitor charges, the potential
difference across the capacitor approaches the supply voltage. In addition to that, the
current across the capacitor decreases as the plates become more and more charged.

Figure 12. Discharging process

As the capacitor discharges, the amplitude of the cycles observed on the C.R.O screen
decreases, that is, the cycles become smaller. The voltage across the plates of the capacitor
gradually drops as the charges drift away from the plates. Moreover, the current across the
capacitor decreases since there are fewer charges on the plates repelling each other.
Note: The shape of these curves can be controlled by a resistor in series. The higher the
resistance, the slower is the rate of charging and the discharging.

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

As seen from figure 10, the capacitor’s

charging and discharging graph match
with the theoretical graph (figure 13)
obtained from the following formulae:
Variation in voltage across capacitor (VC)
during charging with respect to time is
𝑡
given by: 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

Variation in voltage across capacitor (VC)

during discharging with respect to time is
𝑡
given by: 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉0 (𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

Where:
R: resistance of resistor in the circuit
T: time elapsed for the respective process
C: capacitance of the capacitor
V0: voltage of capacitor before discharging
Figure 13. Charging and discharging process combined

4.2 PART B: INSPECTION OF THE REACTANCE OF A CAPACITOR

Graph of experimental XC /Ω against f /Hz

350

300

250
XC /Ω

200

150

100

50

0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
f /Hz

Graph 1. Variation of experimental capacitive reactance against frequency

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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

Graph of theoretical XC /Ω against f /Hz

3,500

3,000

2,500
XC /Ω

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
f /Hz

Graph 2. Variation of theoretical capacitive reactance against frequency

How was Ic calculated in the AC Table?

The method to calculate IC is to use VR which is the voltage across the 100 Ω resistor.
Using the values of VR provided in table 2, the respective values of IR can be calculated
using,
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅
𝑉𝑅
∴ 𝐼𝑅 =
100
Since the capacitor is in series with the resistor (figure 9), the current flowing through the
resistor (IR) is the same current flowing through the capacitor (IC).
𝑉𝑅
∴ 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝐶 =
100
Understanding why there is a striking difference between theoretical and
experimental values of XC.
As it can be seen from the table of values and the graphs, the theoretical values of
capacitive reactance are far much larger than the experimental values.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑋𝐶
By checking the ratio of , we get approximately 10.
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑋𝐶

Therefore the theoretical values of XC differ from the experimental values by a factor 10x.
Using the theoretical formula for XC (eq 1), possible sources of error for this factor are:
 A capacitor of higher capacitance was used (maybe a capacitor of capacitance 470 nF
was used).
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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

 The frequency was wrongly adjusted, that is, a higher range of frequency was being
used (maybe 10000 Hz to 100000 Hz).
Using the experimental formula for XC, possible sources of error for this factor are:
 Another resistor was used rather than a 100 Ω one which eventually caused a change
in the calculated value of IC since IC was calculated using the voltage across the
resistor (maybe a 1000 Ω resistor was used).
 The peak-to-peak signal of the signal generator was wrongly set, that is, it was not set
to 2V.
5.0 CONCLUSION
From both graphs, it can be deduced that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to
the frequency demonstrated by the equation 1. As the frequency of the signal generator
increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. Nevertheless, the experimental and theoretical
values differ due to “blunders” as listed above and/ or maybe due to systematic errors, that is,
the signal generator and/ or the C.R.O itself were wrongly calibrated. However, considering the
fact that the theoretical XC = 10 times experimental XC and that both graphs are similar, we can
conclude that the relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency is valid, that is,
1
𝑋𝑐 ∝
𝑓
Error analysis
If we ignore the fact that theoretical XC is 10 times experimental XC, we can observe that there
is a slight difference in these values. For example, taking some values of table 2:
Row number XC (Theoretical) /Ω XC (Experimental) /Ω Difference /Ω
1 338.6 339.0 0.400
5 67.73 64.72 3.01
10 33.86 31.50 2.36
Table 3. Difference between some amended values of theoretical XC and experimental XC of table 2
We can see that the slight difference between these values and this is the consequence of some
other errors. Some other possible errors are:
 The values were recorded while it was still fluctuating.
 The resistance of the overall circuit increased due to heating in wires and the capacitor.
 Values provided are approximated values. Loss of precision.
Uncertainties in the used apparatus are tabulated below:

Apparatus Measurement Uncertainty

Signal generator Frequency in Hz ±1

Number of major
C.R.O ± 0.1 square
divisions (squares)
Table 4. Uncertainty in apparatus
To obtain more reliable results, the experiment should be performed several times by varying
the capacitance (using different capacitors of known capacitance) and using more precise
apparatus.
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Physics for Engineers 2 ATP–BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering-Year 1 ELEC 1201(1)

6.0 REFERENCES
Anon., 2000. TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL. [Online]
Available at: http://www.physics.nmsu.edu/research/lab110g/html/ERRORS.html
[Accessed 31 May 2020].
Anon., 2013. Introduction to Capacitors, Capacitance and Charge. [Online]
Available at: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html
[Accessed 30 May 2020].
Anon., 2013. RC Discharging Circuit Tutorial & RC Time Constant. [Online]
Available at: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_2.html
[Accessed 31 May 2020].
Lab 1 Capacitor in AC and DC circuits.pdf
Source for figure 2: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html
Source for figure 3: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/connecting-wire-4257111212.html
Source for figure 4: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/silicone-coated-wire-wound-resistor-
17447210197.html
Source for figure 5: https://img.alicdn.com/imgextra/i3/719820549/O1CN011FvTtU9bDCxZ1hg_!!7198
20549.jpg
Source for figure 6: https://bkpmedia.s3.amazonaws.com/photos/400xA_left_lrg.jpg
Source for figure 7: https://www.elprocus.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Featured-image-3.jpg