Accepted Manuscript

Structural model and slip-dilation tendency analysis at the

Copahue geothermal system: Inferences on the reservoir geometry

Hernan Barcelona, Daniel Yagupsky, Nicolas Vigide, Martin

Senger

PII: S0377-0273(18)30393-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.03.007
Reference: VOLGEO 6573
To appear in: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
Received date: 11 September 2018
Revised date: 7 March 2019
Accepted date: 8 March 2019

Please cite this article as: H. Barcelona, D. Yagupsky, N. Vigide, et al., Structural model
and slip-dilation tendency analysis at the Copahue geothermal system: Inferences on the
reservoir geometry, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.03.007

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

STRUCTURAL MODEL AND SLIP-DILATION TENDENCY ANALYSIS AT THE

COPAHUE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM: INFERENCES ON THE RESERVOIR
GEOMETRY

Hernan Barcelona1*, Daniel Yagupsky1, Nicolas Vigide1, Martin Senger2

1
CONICET- IDEAN, Instituto de Estudios Andinos, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Pabellón II, Nuñez, Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina
2
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Pabellón II, Nuñez,

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Buenos Aires, C1428EHA, Argentina

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*
Corresponding author: h.lidenbrock@gmail.com;

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Present address
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Intendente

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Güiraldes 2160 Ciudad Universitaria - Pabellón IIC1428EGA – CABA Argentina
Tel. (+54 +11) 4576-3400
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Highlights
 Geothermal field subjected to extensional stress regime(NW-SE Shmin)
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 N60º, N105º, and N135º-trending faults have respectively high, medium and low
dilation tendency
 Compartmentalized reservoir explains isotopic differences between fumaroles
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 Steam cap is related to the Copahue village extensional fault system

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Keywords: Copahue geothermal reservoir; paleostress tensor inversion; slip-dilation

tendency analysis; 3D structural model
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STRUCTURAL MODEL AND SLIP-DILATION TENDENCY ANALYSIS AT THE

COPAHUE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM: INFERENCES ON THE RESERVOIR
GEOMETRY

Abstract

The Copahue volcano host one of the most attractive geothermal resources of Argentina.
Several studies focused on both the volcanic activity and the related geothermal

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manifestations, including a feasibility report during the ‘90s. However, limited, unclear and

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usually contradictory structural interpretations are found in the literature, and the role of the
main faults over the geothermal system remains thus unsolved. This paper provides the first
structural characterization and role assessment of the faults over the fluid flow and the

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reservoir geometry. A 3D structural model has been constructed to achieve this goal, and a
fault-plane striations survey has been carried out at Anfiteatro, Termas and Maquinitas
hydrothermal zones. Using this dataset, a slip and dilation tendency analysis over the main

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structures have been performed. The 3D structural model indicates that the Copahue
geothermal field is bounded by an N60°-trending fault set and constrained to the north by
the Trolope fault and to the south by the Chancho-Co fault, both with WNW-ESE trend.
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The collected fault-plain striations data was inverted to obtain the paleostress tensor related
to the formation of the Copahue village fault system (CVFS), the structure that controls the
hydrothermal areas. The subvertical maximum principal stress axis obtained defines a well
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constrained tensional regime, with a subhorizontal NW-SE minimum principal stress,

consistent in all the surveyed locations. Both the 3D model and the inverted paleostress
tensor indicate that the geothermal field, and probably the entire northeastern slope of the
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volcano, is subjected to an extensional faulting regime. Our analysis shows that the N°60-
trending fault set is critically stressed for dilation and probably behaves as an active
hydrological fault system, whereas the N105º and N135º fault sets have intermediate and
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low dilation tendency, respectively. These tendencies might lead to a northeast-trend fluid
path between the Chancho-co and the N135° faults and might define the extension of the
steam cap. We propose a compartmentalized reservoir model made up by three fault
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segmented blocks. While a steam cap over a deeper reservoir controlled by the CVFS
characterizes the central segment, a pressurized liquid-dominated reservoir could prevail to
the west of Termas and the east of Maquinas hydrothermal zones. This model explains the
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differences between the fumaroles inside the CVFS (i.e., Termas to Maquinas fumaroles)
and outside this structural system (i.e., Anfiteatro), is consistent with the steam cap
identified by the exploration boreholes and is consistent with the 3D structural framework
proposed. Also, the model suggests that the collapse of the eastern slope of the Chancho-co
hill might constitute the initial state of the current configuration of the geothermal system.
Additional studies are needed to verify the proposed reservoir model before defining deep
exploration targets, including magnetotellurics, discrete fracture network analysis, and
preliminary thermodynamical models.

Keywords: Copahue geothermal reservoir; paleostress tensor inversion; Slip-dilation

tendency analysis; 3D structural model
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1. Introduction

Volcano-hosted geothermal resources usually show an active control of the structural

framework over the fluid circulation system (e.g., Nemčoket al. 2004; Agostini et al. 2006;
Brogi 2008; Carranza et al. 2008; Moeck 2014; Stelling et al. 2016). Faults and fractures
act as conduits or barriers and provide the pathways for subsurface fluid flow (Caine et al.
1996). Favorability of such structures to promote fluid flow depends not only on the
geometric parameters of the structural setting, such as fracture length and degree of
connections (Odlin et al. 1999; Rao et al. 2000; Nelson 2001; Berkowitz 2002; Healy et al.

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2017) but also on the local stress field. In fact, several studies have shown that critically

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stressed faults (i.e., were shear stress is higher than the friction coefficient) promotes
dilation and slip tendency at favorable zones for fluid flow (Barton et al. 1995, 1997; Ferril

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et al. 1999; Ferril and Morris 2003; Gudmundsson et al. 2002; McFarland et al. 2012; Jolie
et al. 2015; Meixner et al. 2016; Giambiagi et al. 2017). Therefore, understanding the
behavior of a preexisting fault system under a specific stress field is a crucial aspect of
establishing the fluid-flow conductivity potential, delimitate the geothermal reservoir,

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understand the degree of compartmentalization and improve the conceptual model of the
geothermal system.
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The Copahue volcano is located at a latitude of 37.8ºS of the Andes Cordillera, over the
Argentina-Chile border; it hosts a vast thermal resource, with a production capacity of more
than 30 MWe (Nakanishi 1995; Chiodini et al. 2015; Barcelona et al. 2017). The intense
volcanic activity registered during the last two decades, together with the increasing efforts
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to diversify the energetic matrix worldwide, lead Copahue to be the most studied
geothermal resource at Argentina (e.g. Pesce 1989; Sierra et al. 1990; JICA 1992; Mas et
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al. 1996; Mas et al. 2005; Varekamp et al. 2009; Mas 2010; Tassi et al. 2017). These
studies include a geothermal project that reached a deep drilling stage with the development
of three production test boreholes and a small power plant (670 kWe) that was active for a
few months during the ‘90s. Since the feasibility report of JICA (1992), the Copahue
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geothermal system has been understood as a volcano-hosted fault-controlled system.

Structural control on the fluid paths was recently suggested, based on fluids discharge
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geochemistry and diffuse soil gas surveys around the thermal areas (Bravo Ojeda 2015;
Chiodini et al. 2015; Roulleau et al. 2016; Roulleau et al. 2017). However, reservoir
geometry and extension are poorly known, and a systematic understanding of the
contribution of fluid paths to the physicochemical conditions of the reservoir is still
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lacking.
This paper aims to provide the first characterization and discussion of the relationship
between the in situ stress orientation and the reservoir of the Copahue geothermal system.
In order to investigate the pathways of subsurface fluid flow and its connection with the
surficial discharge, we performed a three-dimensional structural framework of the Copahue
geothermal system. The model was validated with structural field data, the distribution of
active geothermal surface manifestations, the chemistry of the fluids discharge and the
limited available geophysical data. Stress inversion based on fault kinematics allowed us to
calculate a representative local stress field tensor for the main geothermal area. By the
combination of the 3D structural model and the stress field orientation, we performed a
dilation and slip tendency analysis across the entire geothermal field. Finally, we propose a
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model for the geothermal reservoir at Copahue that defines its geometry and explains the
multi-proxy observed features. Obtained results may have a significant impact on
establishing target zones for production wells that lead to a decrease the risk of the
geothermal project at both the exploration and production stages.

2. Regional tectonics and the stress state at the Caviahue caldera

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The Southern Volcanic Zone agglomerates all the volcanic centers of the Southern Andes

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and is partially controlled by several parallel and oblique to the trench structures, as the
cases of the Liquiñi-Ofqui Fault Zone (LOFZ) and the Callaqui-Copahue-Mandolegüe

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volcanic lineament (CCMVL) respectively (Fig.1). The major intra-arc LOFS
accommodates right-lateral displacement imposed by the oblique convergence between the
Nazca and South American plates (e.g., Lavenu and Cembrano 1999; Cembrano et al.

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1996; Cembrano et al. 2002; Thomson 2002; Vargas et al. 2013; Tardani et al. 2016). This
structure is clearly identified along about 1200 km, between latitudes 37ºS and 47ºS (Hervé
1976, 1994; Cembrano et al. 1996); it was asserted by many authors as the primary cause of
high vertical permeabilities, allowing the development of several volcanic and
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hydrothermal systems (Sibson 1994, 1996; Kim et al. 2004; Rowland and Sibson 2004;
Rowland and Simmons 2012; Perez-Flores et al. 2016). The Lonquimay volcano and the
Tolhuaca geothermal system are expressions of this control (Melosh et al. 2010; Gilbert et
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al. 2014). To the north of the 38ºS latitude, the displacement of the LOFS is absorbed by
the Antiñir-Copahue Fault System (ACFS) in Argentine, configuring the orogenic front at
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these latitudes (Folguera et al. 2004; Melnick et al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016). A
transtensional ENE-trending structural domain links the LOFZ with the ACFS (Folguera
and Ramos 2009; Sielfeld et al. 2016; Staton-Yonge et al. 2016). This transition zone is the
Callaqui-Copahue-Mandolegüe volcanic lineament, defined by the amalgamation of several
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stratovolcanoes and associated vents, dikes, fissures and minor eruptive centers (Melnick et
al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016).
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The Copahue volcano is hosted by the 16 x 20 km volcano-tectonic depression of the

Caviahue caldera (Dellapé and Pando 1975; Mon 1987; Pesce 1989; Melnick et al. 2006).
Extensive efforts have been made to reconstruct the volcanostratigraphy and deformational
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sequence of the area, despite the few published K-Ar radiometric ages of the volcanic units
(Pesce 1989; Linares et al. 1999; Melnick et al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016). The Caviahue
caldera (or Agrio caldera) has formed over a 4-5 Ma old volcanic plateau with 1000 m thick
section of andesitic flows which consists of the Cola de Zorro-Hualcupén formations
(Vergara and Muñoz 1982; Niemeyer and Muñoz 1982; Suarez and Emparán 1997;
Folguera et al. 2006). These lava flows overlie the Oligocene-Miocene sequences and are
exposed at the caldera rims. Ignimbrites flows and lavas of 2.5 Ma that fills the inner rim
constitutes the Las Mellizas Formation (Pesce 1989; Melnick et al. 2006). The later
deposits represent an eroded stratovolcano and were formed by the collapse of the Las
Mellizas volcanic center (Pesce 1989; Melnick et al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016). Andesitic
to dacitic lavas and ignimbrites extruded at the southwestern border of the caldera since the
last 1 Ma constitutes the stratovolcano of Copahue (Linares et al. 1999). This polygenetic
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cone developed by the amalgamation of several effusive centers along an NE fissure,

similar to the Callaqui volcano (Moreno and Lahsen 1986). Other three local effusive
centers should be pointed out: the 1.6 to 0.8 Ma Trolope center, whose lava flows fills the
NE part of the caldera (Pesce 1989; Linares 1999); the 0.5 and 1.0 Ma Pucón Mahuida
dome; and the Cerro Bayo dome (Linares et al. 1999). The domes are located at the SW and
NE border of the caldera respectively, suggesting a structurally constrained emplacement
along the transition between the Lomin strike-slip Fault and the ACFS (Fig. 2).

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Figure 1. Location of the Southern Volcanic Zone (left) and the main tectonic settings
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around the Copahue volcano (right). LOFZ=Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone; ACFS=Antiñir-

Copahue fault system; FTB=fault and thrust belt; CCM VL=Callaqui-Copahue-
Mandolegüe volcanic lineament. Blue triangles are Holocene volcanos.

The volcanic origin of the Caviahue caldera is still subject to debate (Pesce 1989; Melnik et
al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016). It is accepted that the Cola de Zorro Formation constrains
the age of the depocenter to the upper Pliocene. Folguera and Ramos (2000) proposed a
tectonic origin based on the roughly rhombohedral morphology of the Caviahue depression
and its coincidence with the northern termination of the LOFZ. Furthermore, the southern
caldera rim is aligned with a well-defined basement lineament interpreted from
aeromagnetometric data (http://sig.segemar.gov.ar/), that extends for more than 80 km to
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the ESE. On the other hand, Pesce (1989) explained the morphology of the Caviahue
caldera as a volcanic feature. Melnick et al. (2006), in turn, suggested that the depression
evolved as a pull-apart basin with a sequence of volcanic events triggered by the strike-slip
reactivations, combining both interpretations.

At a more local scale, another debated question is the structural configuration and recent
kinematics (~ last 15 ka) of the ENE Anfiteatro-Copahue Village Fault System (CVFS) in
the inner caldera rim (Fig. 2). Some authors defined this fault system as transpressional,
based on the interpretation of reverse faults which would respond to a local WNW-ESE-

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oriented σHmax stress field (Melnick et al. 2006; Folguera et al. 2016). Other authors

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concluded that it constitutes a normal fault system using different approaches such as aerial
photos interpretation supported by field observations (Bonali et al. 2016) and calculation of

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Coulomb fault stress changes from InSAR data (Lundgren et al. 2017). The analyzed fault
pattern strikes from N50°E to N70°E; it is formed by very fresh scarps affecting a
Pleistocene glacial pavement, with vertical displacements ranging from 0.5 m to 30 m,
often associated with open fractures. In order to unravel the kinematics of this fault system,

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an intensive survey of fault plane slickenlines in Anfiteatro-CVFS area and Maquinitas-
CVFS was performed. The paleostress tensor of this structural domain was obtained
through the inversion of the fault-slip data, as described below. Obtained results have
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significant implications for understanding the regional tectonic regime, and particularly to
constrain a consistent model of the hydrothermal system.
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Figure 2. Geological setting of the Caviahue caldera where the volcanic-hosted geothermal
system of Copahue is located. The a-a’ and b-b’ mark the locations of the structural cross-
section in figure 7. CVFS=Copahue Village Fault System.
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3. The Copahue geothermal system

The geothermal resource of Copahue develops at the northern flank of the volcano, 4 km to
the NW of Caviahue town and to the north of the Las Mellizas lakes, which provides water
to the local population. Although the altered soils, hot springs, and fumaroles from the
Termas, Anfiteatro, Maquinas, and Maquinitas geothermal areas constrain the geothermal
field, the Chancho-co fumaroles, located in Chilean territory 2.5 km west of the Copahue

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village, should not be ruled out (Fig. 3). All the hydrothermal zones are characterized by an
intense and pervasive alteration of the country rock with residual deposits composed mainly

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by kaolinite and jarosite, with subordinated cristobalite (Mas et al. 1996). Also, the hot
springs show acid-sulfate discharge that adjusts to steam heated waters (JICA, 1992,

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Agusto et al. 2012; Gaviria Reyes et al. 2016).
Boiling fumaroles next to the geothermal field are composed by more than 97% of vapor
phase, with the dry gas phase dominated by CO2 (JICA 1992; Agusto et al. 2013; Tassi et

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al. 2017). The absence of an acid compound suggests a split between the vertical conduit of
the volcano and the hydrothermal-geothermal system at the flank of the edifice (Agusto et
al. 2013). Chiodini et al. (2015) analyzed the water and CO2 content combined with the He
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isotope composition of the fumarolic discharge at each zone. These studies revealed that the
fumaroles of Anfiteatro are more abundant in water (H2O/CO2 molar ratio of 100) and
significantly lower in 3He/4He (R/Ra ~ 4.9) than those measured at Termas, Máquinas and
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Maquinitas fumarolic zones (H2O/CO2 molar ratio of 40 and R/Ra~7). This observation
suggests strong compartmentalization of the reservoir at depth. Furthermore, the high
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He/4He ratio suggests an extensional tectonic setting at the Copahue fault zone, consistent
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with Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar (InSAR) and seismological data (Velez et al.
2011; Chiodini et al. 2015; Lundgren et al. 2017).
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Figure 3. Simplified Copahue geothermal field map is overlying a 3D view of the

topography (blue-red colormap). Main geothermal areas in red. Chemical data from
Chiodini et al. (2015). Blue dashed box represents the area where the 3D structural
framework was performed. White dots refer to drilled exploratory boreholes (JICA 1992).

Several works have described the structural setting around Copahue village and
surrounding the main thermal manifestations (Dellapé and Pando 1975; Mon 1987; JICA
1992; Nakanishi et al. 1995, among others). The geothermal field of Copahue develops
over a set of ENE-WSW-trending lineaments and faults that affect the intracaldera

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ignimbrites of the Las Mellizas Formation. This set of structures constitute the CVFS

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according to Bonali et al. (2016) or the Copahue graben according to Mon (1987). These
authors defined the structure only surrounding the Copahue village, where the faults exhibit

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the higher throw. In this work, CVFS will be used in a broader sense refers to all the NE-
trending faults expressed in the Las Mellizas Formation.
Pliocene and Pleistocene volcanic products overlying the Miocene basement conform the

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country rock of the Copahue geothermal field. Smectite, chlorite, illite, and kaolinite
constitutes the mineral assemblage that characterizes the low permeability upper layer of
the reservoir (JICA 1992; Barcelona et al. 2019). This clay cap layer correlates an acid
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argillic alteration zone, and its bottom is located at 800 m depth based on the temperature
profiles (Fig. 4). Unfortunately, the lateral extension of the clay cap could not be
constrained until date given the lack of a broad-scale geophysical survey.
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Figure 4. Temperature, pressure and lithological profiles from the three exploration
boreholes drilled in Copahue (COP-1, COP-2 and COP-3; data from JICA 1992; location in
Fig. 3). The right column shows the 1D layered model proposed by Barcelona et al. (2019).

The geothermal system is even less constrained below 1000m depth. Pressure, temperature,
and lithological borehole profiles suggest that the geothermal reservoir is located at 1000-
1500 m below the surface and lies within lavas of the Las Mellizas or Cola de Zorro
formations (Fig. 4). The steam fraction at first production tests (Fig. 5a), together with
chemical geothermometers from fumaroles (~210°C), allowed several authors to propose

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that the reservoir at Copahue is vapor-dominated (JICA 1992; Nakanishi et al. 1995;

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Chiodini et al. 2015). However, Sierra et al. (1990) and Panarello (2002) analyzed the
chemistry and isotopic abundance of the fluids discharge during production tests and

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showed that the boreholes reached a partially isolated steam cap (Fig. 5b). The low values
of transmissivity calculated at the two production-diameter boreholes (~8 D.m) are
consistent with the existence of this likely non-productive shallow steam cap. In a recent
revision, Barcelona et al. (2019) propose a layered reservoir model composed by a steam-

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heated vapor zone above a deeper liquid-dominated reservoir (Fig. 4). This model takes
into account not only the chemical and isotopic approach over the surficial discharge but
also the available production data and the chemical conceptual model proposed by Agusto
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et al. (2013). The latter study shows that the H2O-CO2-CH4 system equilibrates at a deep
neutral to reducing the physicochemical environment, consistent with a liquid-dominated
reservoir. A complementary isotopic study based on abundances of noble gases shows that
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the normalized 132Xe and the constant R/Ra is consistent with a deep liquid-dominated
reservoir at 280ºC (Roulleau et al. 2016).
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Figure 5. a) FT-HSH diagram (D’amore and Thruesdell 1985) from fluid discharge during
different stages of production tests that show a variable vapor-liquid fraction (Panarello
2002). b) δ18O vs. flow discharge for two production test periods at COP-1 (Sierra et al.
1990).

Preliminary measurements of Hg and CO2 flux at the NW border of the NE Copahue

graben were used by JICA (1992) to constrain the reservoir development (Fig. 6a). The
vapor zone was delimited at the surface by Chiodini et al. (2015) based on a high-quality
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CO2 flux database and complementary chemical observations (Fig. 6b). Despite the
diversity of proposed models and the lack of accurate geophysical surveys, figure 6 remarks
the poor correlation existent between the structural setting and the proposed reservoir
boundaries. Thus, both the reservoir extension and the relationship between the structures
and the chemical features of the fumarolic discharge remains to be further analyzed.

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Figure 6. a) Proved, probable and possible reservoirs delimited by JICA (1992) and
Nakanishi (1995). b) Vapor zone delimited by Chiodini et al. (2015) and Roulleau et al.
(2017). CVFS= Copahue village fault system in the sense of the respective authors. ANF,
TER, MMQ, and MAQ correspond to the Anfiteatro, Termas, Maquinitas and Maquinas
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hydrothermal zones, respectively. An inactive fumarole zone (IFZ) and the location of the
deep exploration boreholes were included.
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4. Methodology
4.1. 3D structural framework: data source and modeling
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The 3D structural model of the Copahue geothermal field was built using both Andino 3D
(Cristallini and Hernandez 2015) and Move (from Midland Valley Ltd.) software. The
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dimensions adopted for the geological model were 10 km x 8 km x 3 km, reaching 500 m
depth b.s.l. (Fig. 3). Fault geometries were modeled based on a detailed fault scarp
mapping, fault planes measurement, and slickenlines data identification. Two sets of cross-
sections were constructed based on this dataset: one perpendicular to the NE-SW Copahue
village fault system main trend (18 cross-sections), and another perpendicular to the WNW-
ESE Chancho-co fault trend (10 cross-sections). The spacing between adjacent cross-
section ranged from 500m to 1500m.
A stratigraphic framework was also considered. We used the thickness of the main units
proposed by Melnick et al. (2006) which are consistent with the published geologic maps
and volcanic evolution of the area (Pesce 1989; Roulleau et al. 2018). Lithological analysis
of borehole cuttings from exploration boreholes allowed to local fit the stratigraphy. The
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∼1000m depth boreholes are located around the Mellizas lakes (Fig. 3), they are separated
from each other by 1000m, and the lithostratigraphic column was interpreted as part of the
Mellizas Formation (i.e., the clay cap of the geothermal system). The resulting stratigraphic
setting finally fitted the geological mapping and incorporated into the model.
Two representative cross-sections of the Copahue geothermal system used for the
construction of the 3D structural model are shown in figure 7 (NE-SW in Fig. 7a; NW-SE
in Fig. 7b). Besides, hydrothermal zones and the Las Mellizas lakes were added over the
topographic relief of the 3D model as a reference.

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Figure 7. Geological cross-sections are showing the main structures that control the
geothermal system. (CVFS=Copahue village fault system; AF=Anfiteatro fumaroles;
TF=Termas fumaroles; MMF=Maquinitas fumaroles; MF=Maquinas fumaroles). Red
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dashed line: reservoir extension proposed by JICA 1992; white dashed line: reservoir
extension proposed in this work.
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4.2. Stress inversion: fieldwork and processing

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A fault plane-striation survey was carried out in Anfiteatro and Maquinitas, two areas
located northwest and southeast of Copahue village, respectively. Each of these sites
represents the bounding fault systems of the Copahue village structural depression (i.e.,
CVFS), with a general N60º-striking trend (Fig. 3). Ignimbritic bodies and lavas from Las
Mellizas Formation outcrop in both areas. Data collection consisted of the measurements of
fault plane-striation on mesoscale faults distributed all along the study areas to obtain
reduced stress tensors. A total of 40 fault planes with reliable shear indicators (striations
with associated fractures, a few mineral growth fibers, and lunate tectoglyph) were found.
The underlying assumptions involved in the application of inverse methods for determining
stress from fault-slip data (Bott, 1959) are not always fulfilled. The main complications are
inhomogeneous stress field, pre-existing anisotropies, interaction between different faults,
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rotation of the entire rock body or internal blocks relative to the stress field (Dupin et al.
1993; Pollard et al. 1993; Twiss and Unruh 1998). Additionally, the fault pattern can be a
consequence of two or more subsequent deformation events. These factors need to be
evaluated to obtain a reliable paleostress tensor.
We used compatibility criteria to separate heterogeneous data into homogeneous subsets,
based on their kinematic style and orientation (e.g., normal, strike-slip and reverse
faulting). This rough separation serves as a starting point for the mathematical processing
during the paleostress inversion, which separate faults in subsets depending on their
deviation angles (α) between measured and theoretical slip directions. To perform this task,

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we use the TENSOR computer program developed by Delvaux (1993). The results
provided are the orientations of the principal stress axes σ1 (maximum compression), σ2

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(intermediate compression) and σ3 (minimum compression) and the ratio of principal stress
differences R = (σ2-σ3)/(σ1- σ3). The four parameters are determined by using an improved

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version of the Right Dihedral method of Angelier and Mechler (1977), and a four-
dimensional numeric rotational optimization method (Delvaux 1993). This last step
involves testing some stress tensors on all faults of the data set to simultaneously minimize

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the slip deviation (α) for slickensides, maximize the shear stress (τ) and minimize the
normal stress magnitude (σn) on each fault plane. Under these conditions, slip on a pre-
existing rock discontinuity will occur, in agreement with Amonton’s Law. The sliding
criteria assume that the friction angle ϕ must be greater than the initial friction angle (ϕ0 =
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16.7º) and smaller than the maximum friction angle (ϕmax = 40.4º), using the values given
by Byerlee (1978) (see Delvaux and Sperner 2003, for further details). It is important to
note that the stress magnitudes are expressed relatively because the absolute values cannot
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be determined using geological data only (Angelier 1989).

In the iterative approach for stress tensor determination, data are excluded by the misfit
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parameter α using a threshold value of 30º, concerning the stress model parameters that best
fit the entire set of data. Excluded data are not discarded but submitted to a new stress
tensor calculation, progressively splitting the original data into subsets containing data
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more or less compatible with the stress model calculated for each subset. Finally,
incompatible data are discarded.
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The reliability of the final stress tensor is evaluated using the quality scheme for the World
Stress Map project (WSM; Zoback 1992). The ranking parameter Q ranges from A (best) to
E (worst), and is determined as a function of threshold values of a series of criteria (Sperner
et at. 2003), namely the total number of fault data measured (nt), the number of fault data
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used for the stress tensor determination (n), the mean slip deviation (α) and the slip sense
confidence level for individual faults (Cl). Tensors from sites where more than one subset
of fault data have been identified have lower ranks than single stress tensor sites, for the
same amount of data, being the quality of the calculated tensors greatly influenced by this
factor.
The stress regime index R’ is determined on the basis of the stress ratio R and the most
vertical stress axis in the forms of a continuous scale from 0 (radial extension) to 3
(constriction), with R’ = R for normal faulting regimes (0 - 1), R’ = 2 - R for strike-slip
regimes (1 - 2) and R’ = 2 + R for thrust faulting regimes (2 - 3) (Delvaux and Sperner
2003).
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4.3. Slip and dilation tendency approach (fault stress analysis)

The critically-stressed-fault hypothesis could approach the significance of faults in fluid

flow at depth. This hypothesis suggests that faults and fractures that are favorably oriented
and critically stressed for frictional failure should control both fluid flow and reactivation
potential (Barton et al. 1995; Sibson 1996; Ito and Zoback 2000; Meixer et al. 2016).
Considering the 3D structural model and the orientation and shape of the obtained stress

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tensors, we modeled slip and dilation tendency of the different interpreted faults with the
Stress Analysis module from Move.

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Slip and dilation tendencies are understood as the likelihood of a plane to slip and to dilate
in an applied stress state, respectively (Hobbs et al. 1976; Morris et al. 1999; Lisle and

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Srivastava 2004). While the former could be quantified as the ratio between shear stress
and normal stress on a particular plane (Morris et al. 1996), the latter could be quantified as
the ratio between the maximum, minimum and normal stress (Ferrill et al. 1999). Both

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parameters vary between 0 and 1 and the higher, the greater the likelihood of failure and
therefore likely to transmit geothermal fluids (Siler et al. 2016). Also, the effect of the
stress field is highest when the effective stress conditions on a fault approach those required
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for slip, i.e., the critical stress (Zhang et al. 2007; Morris and Ferrill 2009). It is interesting
to note that the fracture planes perpendicular to the minimum stress have the highest
dilation tendency in a given stress field (Jolie et al. 2015).
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Three main assumptions were taken into account to apply this approach. Firstly, the
calculated orientation of the local stress field at the surface roughly reflects the orientation
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of the stress field in the subsurface. We consider these assumptions valid given the reduced
scale of our model (80 km2 of area and 3 km of depth). Secondly, the derived principal
stresses for a given depth are projected to all the fault planes with constant magnitudes and
orientations, neglecting local stress field variations. Thirdly, cohesionless pre-existent faults
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were assumed. Because of the lack of leak-off or mini-frac tests (Zoback 2007), we
estimated the magnitude of each stress field component by the obtained shape ratio and
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considering that the vertical stress at a certain depth is equal to the overburden pressure
calculated with a rock density of 2700 kg/m3 and a water density of 1050 kg/m3. Values of
frictional coefficient ranging from 0.2 to 0.7 were evaluated in agreement with laboratory
measurements (Byerlee 1978), without significant variations in the obtained results.
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5. Results
5.1. 3D structural model

The 3D structural framework of the Copahue geothermal field comprises a total of 19 faults
(Fig. 8). All the recognized faults have normal kinematics, consistent with a predominantly
extensional stress field and no evidence of reverse component was identified. This
observation is opposite to previous published structural maps (Melnick et al. 2006; Rojas
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Vera et al. 2009; Sruoga and Consoli 2011; among others) but consistent with recent
published seismic-based Coulomb fault stress maps for the region (Lundgren et al. 2017;
Zurajoski 2017).
The primary set of lineaments and faults of the area affects the intracaldera ignimbrites of
the Las Mellizas Formation, where the geothermal field is located. They form straight fault
lines with N55° to N70° strikes and subvertical scarps (∼80°). Both fault dip-polarities
(NW and SE) have been observed. Notably, the structural horst of the Chancho-co hill is
bounded to the NW by two rather continuous NW-dipping normal faults (faults 1 and 2 in
Fig. 8) near the Caviahue rim, while to the SE by a group of close-spaced normal

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faults(faults 3 to 10 in Fig. 8), named here CVFS. These faults show considerable vertical
throws (up to ∼40 m) and define in turn the Copahue village graben. The normal faults are

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interpreted as a shallow rooted system, with a proposed decollement close to the reservoir
depth. This interpretation is consistent with the depth at the brittle-ductile transition

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proposed by Velez (2011) for the northeastern slope of the volcano. Southeast of the
Copahue village graben, NE normal faults change both decreasing throw and increasing
spacing (faults 11, 12, 13 and 14 on Fig. 8), defining, therefore, a different structural block.

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These observations suggest that to the east of Chancho-co hill develops an hemigraben like
structure that extends at least until the Maquinas fumaroles and its continuity until the
Caviahue lake should be not ruled out. Therefore, the CVFS could be continued until the
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fault 13, consistent with the presence of the Maquinas hydrothermal zone.
The NE-trending faults of the CVFS lose morphological expression along strike in both
directions bounded at depth by two NW-SE faults (faults 18 and 15 in Fig. 8). The former
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(Trolope fault) is part of the southern structural border of the Trolope graben, while the
latter (Chancho-co fault) is interpreted as the structural expression of the Las Mellizas
volcanic center collapse. Interestingly, both are previous to the development of the
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Copahue volcano. Besides, two faults that fragment the CVFS with N135° and N105°
trends (faults 16 and 19 in Fig. 8) have been identified, based on morphological features,
ignimbrite thickness variations, and alignment of fumaroles, altered soils and CO2 diffuse
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soil anomalies (Chiodini et al. 2015). The 3D model helps to unravel the spatial correlation
between the structural setting and the geothermal field. The location of the hydrothermal
alteration zones is mainly constrained between the Chancho-co and the Trolope faults (see
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Fig. 8). Moreover, the Termas and Maquinitas fumaroles occur on the intersections
between N60°, N105°, and N135° faults, while the Maquinas fumaroles are also related to
the presence of N60º and N105º structural trends. Therefore, the fault intersection zones are
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likely relevant to promote geothermal fluid flows to the surface.

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Figure 8. The simplified 3D structural model for the volcano-hosted geothermal system of
Copahue between the surface and 1000 m depth below sea level.
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5.2. Stress inversion

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The performed paleostress analysis of the CVFS indicates a consistent extensional regime
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with a nearly NW-SE Shmin (σ3). In the following description, the tensors and the related
fault-slip data from Anfiteatro and Maquinitas sub-systems of the CVFS will be presented
separately.
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TABLE 1. Paleostress sites and parameters for the corresponding reduced stress tensors. n:
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number of fault data used for the stress tensor calculation; nT: total number of measured
data; σ1, σ2, σ3: stress axis (plunge angle/azimuth); R: stress ratio (σ2-σ3)/(σ1- σ3); ᾱ: mean
deviation angle between observed and computed slip directions, in degree; stress regime:
qualification as in the World Stress Map (NF: normal faulting); Q: quality rank from A
(best) to E (worst)

Descriptio Stress
Lat. Long. n nT σ1 σ2 σ3 R ᾱ Q
n regime

-37.813 -71.079 Anfiteatro 10 21 66/127 05/228 23/320 0.48 7.6 NF C

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-37.813 -71.079 Anfiteatro 8 21 72/328 04/225 17/134 0.24 1.4 NF D

-37.817 -71.084 Maquinitas 9 15 74/229 15/030 05/121 0.25 11 NF D

5.2.1. Anfiteatro-Copahue village fault system

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The stress inversion results along Anfiteatro-CVFS indicate a well constrained tensional
regime (σ1 is sub-vertical while σ2 and σ3 are sub-horizontal), with an NE-SW maximum

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principal stress axis Shmax (σ2) and an NW-SE minimum principal axis Shmin (σ3).
Calculations were based on a total of 21 measurements, and the results are summarized in

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table 1 and figure 9a.
Two fault-slip data subsets (A-SS1 and A-SS2) were separated based on slightly different
stress tensors inferred; both populations have stress indexes R’ between 0.25 and 0.75 (pure

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tensional regime) and are characterized by low α-values. The mean orientations of the
principal stress axes for A-SS1 are σ1 at 66/127, σ2 at 05/228 and σ3 at 23/320, and for A-
SS2 are σ1 at 72/328, σ2 at 04/225 and σ3 at 17/134. Despite their average quality ranks (C
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and D respectively), we consider the tensors solutions satisfactory and reliable for the
present site, considering that the subset separation performed lowers the quality assessment.
Besides, the A-SS1 shows an "oblique" or "non-Andersonian" stress state, according to
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Anderson (1942), meaning that none of the principal axes is vertical. This suggests that
some components of rotation during the deformation could have selectively affected to A-
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SS1 sub-population, spatially restricted to the immediate vicinity of the main identified
fault scarps. This rotation would result in distorted orientations of fault-slip data and
associated paleostress axes (Homberg et al. 2002; Lacombe et al. 2006; Lamarche et al.
1999, 2002). Aside from this discrepancy, the directions of the principal axes and the stress
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ratio obtained for both subsets are in good agreement, assigned to a unique deformational
stage with NW-SE extensional axis.
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Unfortunately, we could not obtain structural attitudes of the ignimbritic bodies and lavas
from Las Mellizas Formation in most of the sampling locations, because in young volcanic
units they are generally hampered by the dynamics of magmas. This prevents performing a
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reliable back-tilting test. However, the ~20º anti-clockwise rotation about σ2 axis needed to
transform the oblique stress state of A-SS1 into an Andersonian one is a reasonable
structural correction, considering that the mean of σ2 axes orientation is coaxial with the
mean strike of the main normal faults, likely responsible for tilting individual fault-bounded
blocks.

5.2.2. Maquinitas-Copahue village fault system

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A total of 15 fault-slip data were measured in this site yielding nine useful values (60%)
with a clear sense of movement, which is a good score given the poor quality of exposures.
Results are summarized in table 1 and figure 9b.
The stress inversion results indicate a tensional regime (σ1 is sub-vertical while σ2 and σ3
are sub-horizontal), with an NE-SW maximum principal stress axis Shmax(σ2) and an NW-
SE minimum principal axis Shmin (σ3). Stress index R’= 0.25 indicate a pure tensional
regime and mean misfit α-angle is low, indicating a good fit the calculated tensor and the
measured striae. The site shows a poor-quality tensor rank (D); nevertheless, it is consistent
with the tensors obtained in A-CVFS. Therefore, its poor quality probably depends, as

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already said, by the fact that it derives from inversion of a low number of constrained data.
The fault population consists of NE-SW-trending normal, and oblique normal faults,

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consistent with a calculated tensor whose principal stress axes are σ1 at 74/229, σ2 at 15/030
and σ3 at 05/121.

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Figure 9. Fault-slip data and stress inversion results. Lower-hemisphere Schmidt stereoplot
of the fault-slip data subsets and corresponding stress tensor. Histogram of weighted misfit
function. Horizontal stress symbols as in legend at the bottom. Details in Table 1.
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5.3. Slip and dilation tendency analysis

Slip and dilation tendencies have been calculated for the entire 3D structural model under
the prevailing stress conditions obtained, and the results are shown in figure 10. The
structures that constitute the Copahue geothermal system generally show very low slip
tendency, as can be observed at the Chancho-co or Trolope faults, and low to medium slip
tendency for the N60°-trending fault set, including the CVFS (Fig. 10a). Within the latter
fault set, slightly higher slip tendencies were obtained for the west-dipping faults than for
the east-dipping faults. However, this observation should be ruled out because fault slip is

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very sensitive to slight variations of subvertical maximum stress.

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Several N60º-trending faults around the geothermal field are near or critically stressed for
dilation (Fig. 10b). These faults include not only the CVFS but also the faults spatially

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linked to Maquinas and Anfiteatro fumaroles. On the other hand, Chancho-co, Trolope, and
the N105°-trending fault are subcritically stressed and have low and medium dilation
tendency, respectively. The rose diagram of the figure 10b synthesizes these results and

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shows that the N60°, N105°, and N135° fault trends have high, medium and low dilation
tendency respectively. Because the orientation of the maximum stress axis is subvertical,
we believe that the dilation tendency as a more reliable proxy for assessing the stress
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control on the permeability, and hence for the hydrological activity of the faults.
The fact that the CVFS exhibits a high permeability potential is consistent with the strong
spatial relation between both the hydrothermal areas and the N60º-trending faults. Thus,
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these structures seem to promote an efficient deep-fluid flow anisotropy. On the other
hand, the lack of hydrothermal manifestations to the north of Termas and Maquinitas
fumaroles, together with the low dilation tendency of the N135º-trending fault 16 (see Fig.
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10b) support the interpretation that this structure has a sealed - behavior. However, an
overall assessment of the behavior of this fault should include other terms, as the vertical
throw, tips and fault intersections. For instance, several segments of the Chancho-co fault
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also have low dilation tendency, but active fumaroles over its trace (i.e., Maquinas at
Argentine and Chancho-co, at Chile); this indicates an active hydrological behavior,
directly connecting the reservoir with the surface. Although both N135°-trending faults are
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related to the collapse of the Las Mellizas eruptive center, the Chancho-co fault shows a
vertical throw up to 200 m higher than fault 16, which aligns Termas and Maquinitas
fumaroles. Therefore, we infer that differences in the hydrological behavior of these faults
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could be attributed to the degree of development of the associated damage zone in each
case, being the vertical throw an excellent qualitative proxy. Finally, the N105°-trending
fault would contribute to the formation and alignment of Anfiteatro, Termas and
Maquinitas fumaroles by increasing both the number of intersected N60º-trend faults and
the related local damage zones.
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Figure 10. Slip (a) and dilation (b) tendency for the faults of the Copahue geothermal
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system. Rose diagrams indicate the fault-segments strike with color-coded bins that
represent de slip or dilation tendency. Right models are a zooms to the CVFS. Fault
numbers according to figure 8.
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6. Implications over the Copahue geothermal reservoir

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The constructed 3D structural model supports that the Copahue geothermal field is
structurally controlled, outlining the possible geometry of the reservoir. Given that
geothermal reservoirs are not only controlled by their structural features but also by
changes in lateral permeability and hydraulic transmissivity, the accurate dimensions and
geometry of the reservoir cannot be established until an advanced production stage of the
field is reached. However, the reported data suggest the presence of sharp structural
boundaries for the geothermal reservoir, and a system of structures favorably oriented to
promote hydraulic flow.
WNW-ESE and NE-SW extensional fault sets constrained the Copahue geothermal field
and formed probably during different deformation stages of its evolution. The Trolope fault
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(Fig. 11a) seems to be a plausible structural boundary of the geothermal system, taking into
account the distance from the inferred location of the thermal anomaly (Mas et al. 2000;
Velez et al. 2011) and the surface manifestations. On the other hand, the Chancho-co fault,
which passed through the Las Mellizas lakes, aligns two hydrothermal alteration zones and
is part of an extensional structure that affects the NE slope of the volcano, could also be a
natural boundary of the system. Both NW-SE-trending faults or fault systems (Chanco-co
and Trolope, see Fig. 11a) appear to constrain the reservoir to the south and north,
respectively. It is interesting to note that these structures bound grabens, probably
developed during the collapse of Agrio and Las Mellizas volcanic centers, before the
development of the Copahue volcano.

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The southeastern and northwestern boundaries are not so well defined, given that the faults

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of the CVFS show a gradual throw decrease from the Anfiteatro-Termas fault system in
both directions, towards the edges of the geothermal field. The southeastern boundary was

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proposed to be the fault number 14 on figure 11a based on gravity, aeromagnetometric and
thermal data (Fig. 11b) but could be extended until the Caviahue lake, whereas the
northwestern boundary of the reservoir could be linked to the graben-related hanging wall

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of the Caviahue caldera (fault 1 on Fig. 8). It is interesting to point out that the proposed
extension of the geothermal reservoir based on structural data is in good agreement with the
distribution of seismic activity (Lazo et al. 2015; Lundgren et al. 2017), and that it is larger
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than previous estimations (JICA 1992; Chiodini et al. 2015).
Figure 11c shows a compartmentalized reservoir model that fits with several geological,
geochemical and surface geothermal features. It improves previous interpretations, given
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the incorporation of structural constraints to the delimitation of Copahue geothermal

reservoir. A steam cap over a deep liquid-dominated reservoir constitutes the central
reservoir segment of the proposed model (CVFS block in Fig. 11a). Production tests carried
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out over a 1000 m depth exploratory well hosted on this reservoir segment corroborate the
existence of the steam cap (Panarello 2002). The excellent correlation found between the
dilational NE-trending faults and the location of hydrothermal zones (Termas, Maquinitas
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and Maquinas) supports the proposed layering of the reservoir. Moreover, the isotopic
signature of these fumaroles is consistent with a deep feed zone. The latter constitutes an
upflow zone that is commonly deep-rooted fault controlled. In the case of the Copahue, this
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fault system could be the mostly extensional CVFS. Furthermore, faults 5 and 13 (see Fig.
11a) are proposed to be the boundaries of this reservoir zone. The former boundary because
of the unique chemical and isotopic signatures of the Anfiteatro’ fluids that differentiate it
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from the other CVFS hydrothermal zones (JICA 1992; Agusto et al. 2013; Chiodini et al.
2015). Also, it is interesting to point out that is the only geothermal surface manifestation
that is not strictly controlled by an NE-trending fault, suggesting that a probable fold-
related shallow structure linked to the collapse of the eastern Chancho-co hill could not be
ruled out.

Structural blocks bounding the CVFS have a relevant role on the compartmentalized
reservoir model. Since the eastern boundary of the Chancho-co hill hosts the Anfiteatro
hydrothermal zone, its fluid discharge is a proxy to constraint the northwestern part of the
reservoir. As the spacing between the faults increases away from the CVFS, the
effectiveness of the seal cap in the bounding blocks should also increase. Moreover, a
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reservoir constrained by larger structural blocks and restricted damage zones might avoid
both depressurization and development of a steam cap. These inferences are in agreement
with the chemical signature and H2O/CO2 ratio of the Anfiteatro fumaroles, that suggests a
shallow steam heated water source, a liquid-dominated reservoir and the lack of a steam
cap. Also, the lack of a deep-rooted fault system outside the CVFS promotes additional
effects over the reservoir, as a likely absence of fluids injection related to an upflow zone.
This hypothesis is supported by the He isotopes content of the Anfiteatro fumaroles, which
indicates a shorter geothermal fluid path than in the fluids subjected to the CVFS, where the
structures are deep-rooted. We suppose that these reservoir conditions replicate to the
southeast of Maquinas hydrothermal zone, because of the roughly similar structural

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conditions at both sides of the CVFS block.

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The dilation tendency analysis performed over the proposed structural framework suggests
the existence of a preferential fluid path constrained by an NE-trend anisotropic

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permeability. On the other side, the results indicate that N135°-trending faults are most
likely acting as hydrological barriers. The latter could explain not only the alignment of the
Termas and Maquinitas fumaroles but also the lack of hydrothermal manifestations to the

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north. Both constraints might lead to a northeast-trend fluid path between the Chancho-co
and the N135° faults and might define the extension of the steam cap.
Finally, this compartmentalized model should be analyzed regarding the structural
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evolution of the area and its influence over an initial volcano-hosted liquid-dominated
reservoir. While the Pleistocene to recent collapse of the eastern slope of the Chancho-Co
hill and the development of the CVFS would have led to a significant pressure decrease
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causing the shallow steam cap growth, host rocks on both sides of the CVFS would have
maintained the pressurized liquid-dominated reservoir, preventing the development of the
vapor zone. Besides, effects of magmatic injection-related inflation-deflation cycles over
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the northeastern slope of the Copahue volcano may favor the establishment of the
extensional environment over the geothermal field and should not be ruled out.
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Figure 11. a) Structures forming the compartmentalized geothermal reservoir model of

Copahue. b) NW-SE Bouguer anomaly, aeromagnetometric response and thermal structure
at 50 m depth profiles through the steam cap. Data from JICA (1992) and
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http://segemar.com.ar. c) NW to SE structural section with the interpreted reservoir model.

The Copahue village fault system block (CVFSB) controls the formation of a vapor zone,
and the reservoir continues as liquid-dominated at shallow levels outside the domain, at the
NW and SE structural blocks. Fault numbers in the white background according to figure 8.
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7. Conclusions

The main goal of the current study was to investigate the geothermal system hosted in the
northeastern slope of the Copahue volcano. The purpose was to unravel the structural
architecture and its role in the reservoir structure and the transport of fluids along the
geothermal resource. The study was supported by the inversion of fault plane-striation
measurements at the most relevant geothermal areas (i.e., Anfiteatro, Termas, and
Maquinitas) to define the local paleostress tensor, and by the construction of a 3D structural
model, both used to assess the hydrological behavior of the main faults.

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Despite little variation of the vertical axes over the surveyed locations, the stress inversion

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results indicate a well constrained tensional regime over the study area, with an NW-SE
minimum principal stress axis Shmin.

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Both the 3D model and the inverted paleostress tensor indicate that the geothermal field,
and probably the entire northeastern slope of the volcano, is subjected to an extensional
faulting regime. Also, it provides the first formal attempt to define structural boundaries of

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this geothermal system and defines an extension for the possible reservoir that is larger than
previous estimations (JICA 1992; Chiodini et al. 2015). According to this investigation, the
geothermal field is bounded by N60°-trending faults, and constrained to the northeast by
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the Trolope fault and the southeast by the Chancho-Co faults, both with WNW-ESE trend.
Regarding the slip and dilation tendency analysis, this study has shown that the N°60-
trending fault set is critically stressed for dilation, whereas the N105º and N135º fault sets
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have intermediate and low dilation tendency, respectively. Thus, the hydrological active
N60º dilational fault set would lead to an anisotropic geothermal fluids flow path at depth.
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Moreover, damage zones associated to fault intersection are probably the main control on
the current location of the active hydrothermal areas (i.e., Anfiteatro, Termas, Maquinitas,
and Maquinas), establishing vertical pathways for fluids. The lack of fumaroles to the north
of Termas and Maquinitas is consistent with the low permeability inferred for N135º-
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trending faults. This observation constraints to the geothermal fluid flow suggest the
existence of reservoir segmentation between Chancho-co and Termas-Maquinitas N135º-
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trending faults.
The results of this research support the idea of a compartmentalized reservoir, segmented
into three structural blocks. The central block correlates with the extension of the Copahue
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village fault system and is characterized by the presence of a steam cap over a deeper
reservoir. We suggest that outside the CVFS (NW and SE blocks) the fluid continues
pressurized and a liquid-dominated reservoir condition prevails. These structural blocks
would extend up to the Caviahue caldera rim to the NW, and up to, at least the 135º-
trending fault number 14 to the SE (Fig. 8), respectively. This model explains the chemical
and isotopic differences between the fumaroles inside the CVFS (i.e., Termas to Maquinas
fumaroles) and outside this structural system (i.e., Anfiteatro), is consistent with the steam
cap identified by the exploration boreholes and fits with the structural framework proposed.
The model suggests that the initial state of this system would be linked to the collapse of
the eastern slope of the Chancho-co hill and the development of the CVFS. Additional
studies are needed to validate the model, including a dense gravity and magnetotelluric
survey, discrete fracture network models and production tests over deep exploration
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boreholes. Finally, the results presented here will prove useful in expanding our
understanding of the geothermal system as a whole, enhance the conceptual model, and
start a quantification of the resource and the design of an intensive deep drilling stage,
including the location of the target.

Acknowledgments

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This work was supported by the National Agency of Scientific and Technological

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Promotion (PICT-2016-1407 and PICT-2016-3684).

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