Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thesis submmited by
AMEER HAMZA
MIR AFZAL
SAEED AHMAD
HAMZA AHMAD
ABDUL AZIZ
Supervised by
Dr. Irfan Ullah
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
BACHA KHAN UNIVERSTIY CHARSADDA
(SESSION 2018-2022)
1|Page
Underground water investigation via geophysical and GIS
techniques
Thesis submitted to the department of Geology for partial fulfillment of requirement for the
SUBMITTED BY:
AMEER HAMZA
MIR AFZAL
HAMZA AHMAD
SAEED AHMAD
ABDUL AZIZ
2|Page
Acknowledgment:
In the name of Allah, the most benevolent, the most generous. We bear witness that there is no
God but Allah and holly prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) is the last messenger. We would
like to play our regard to our Supervisors Dr. Irfan Ullah and Co-supervisors Dr. Saad Khan.
Their invaluable comments, constructive criticism, their helpful nature and academic support
have contributed most in making this task easier and more comfortable and also helped in
interpretation of the data and construction of map of LandiKotal. We also would like to
acknowledge the PHED of Khyber District and NASA for providing free remote sensing data to
make this research work more easy and low cost for us. We would like to our family member
and our brother for their prayers, encouragement and confidence have always given our strength
to achieve our goals. Friends are part of our lives and we find them there when we feel standing
alone. Their guidance in different area calculation of LandiKotal are thankfully acknowledged.
Finally, we wish to express our appreciation to the whole faculty and staff of Department of
Geology and Geophysics of Bacha Khan University Charsadda.
3|Page
Abstract
Groundwater is a finite and at-risk natural resource, essential to sustain life, development, and
the environment. To model both the quantity and quality of ground water is essential to endure
food security and sustainible envirnment. In this research, underground water is investigated
using geophysical and GIS techniques. The area selected for the research is the LANDI KOTAL
tehsil of DISTRICT KHYBER. It is the headquarter of the administration of the Khyber district
and is on the way across the mountains to the city of PESHAWAR. Data of the subsurface is
acquired using a Terrameter, the electrical resistivity profiles of various sites are modeled to
have an idea about the ground water potenial, different maps of the area are generated using
verious tools of GIS to represent the data collectively. DEM of the area is downloaded from a
website (https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov) which shows that the location is highly elevated.
The water table of the area show variation. Along the mountains, the water table is near to the
surface. As go away from elevation the water table also goes deeper. The water table lies at a
normal depth that wells easily touch the water table with less energy. Water samples are also
collected from the already drilled wells. For Physico-chemical parameters, the water samples
examine as per the standard set for the standard method of the AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH
ASSOCIATION. The result shows that the pH of the area is mostly normal, not very dangeorus
however little risky for health. Similarly, the TDS of the area show that water in most area has
good quality and are drinkable but someplace on the lower left side of the map shows a high
value than the normal and has poor quality and are not drinkable.
4|Page
Contents
Chapter No: 1...................................................................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................7
1.1 General Introduction..............................................................................................................7
1.2 Study Area..............................................................................................................................8
1.3 Geology of the study area......................................................................................................9
1.4 Stratigraphy of the area........................................................................................................10
1.4.1 LandiKotal formation....................................................................................................10
1.4.2 Shagai formation...........................................................................................................11
1.4.3 Ali Masjid Formation....................................................................................................11
1.4.4 Khyber Limestone.........................................................................................................11
1.4.5 Ghundai Sar Formation.................................................................................................11
1.4.6 Lowera Mena Formation...............................................................................................11
1.5 Statement of Problem...........................................................................................................12
1.6 Aim and Objectives..............................................................................................................12
1.7 Scope of study Area.............................................................................................................13
CHAPTER NO: 2..........................................................................................................................14
GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION........................................................................................14
2.1 Electrical resistivity..............................................................................................................14
2.1.1 Concept..........................................................................................................................14
2.1.2 Groundwater Investigation and Electrical Resistivity Method.....................................14
2.1.3 Field Procedure..............................................................................................................16
2.2 ABEM Terrameter LS system..............................................................................................16
2.3 Geographical Information System (GIS).............................................................................17
2.3.1 Illustrative modelling....................................................................................................17
2.3.2 Spatial Decision-Support Systems................................................................................18
Chapter No: 3.................................................................................................................................19
MATERAIL AND METHOD.......................................................................................................19
3.1 Digital elevation model (DEM)...........................................................................................19
3.2 Extract by Mask using ArcGIS............................................................................................20
3.3 Water Quality Sampling.......................................................................................................21
5|Page
3.3.1 Analytical Methods Applied.........................................................................................21
Chapter No: 4.................................................................................................................................23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................................23
4.1 North to South lines graph...................................................................................................23
4.2 West to East line graph........................................................................................................24
4.3 Cross lines graph..................................................................................................................26
4.4 Discussion............................................................................................................................26
4.5 Physical Parameter...............................................................................................................27
4.5.1 pH..................................................................................................................................27
4.5.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).......................................................................................27
4.6 Chemical Parameter.............................................................................................................28
4.6.1Calcium (Ca)..................................................................................................................28
Chapter No: 5.................................................................................................................................30
CONCLUSUION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................30
References......................................................................................................................................31
6|Page
Chapter No: 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
Groundwater is a finite and at risk natural resource, essential to sustain life, improvement, and
the environment. In Pakistan, 90% of drinking water and 60% of irrigation requirements are
achieved from groundwater (Imran, 2019; Qureshi et al., 2003). The water availability per capita
in the country has dropped from 5,269 m3 in 1951 to 908 m3 in 2017 due to a rapid increase of
population (Talib et al., 2019). When water supply falls below 1000 m 3, the country begins to
suffer from lingering water stress (Gleick, 1993). The instant population growth lead to in
continuous increase in the number of water wells that subsequently resulted in depletion in water
table due to over extraction of groundwater (Basharat, 2012). Pakistan is on the verge of water
scarceness whereas ranking third among the countries challenging critical water shortage in the
world (Nabi et al., 2019).
This increasing demand of groundwater and rapid growth in industrialization call for
investigating both water availability and quality. The types of qualitative and quantitative
statistics are derivative of hydro-geophysical and hydro-chemical data sets. The electrical
resistivity and the well logging data (Balti et al., 2014) has been utilized for hydro-geophysical
studies. The vertical electrical soundings (VES) is one of the most frequently used surface based
geophysical tools to determine thickness, depth, true resistivity, and geological units in the
subsurface using apparent resistivity data (Ammar, 2010; Louis et al., 2004). Similarly, borehole
logs are used in analysing the source, groundwater movement, and physio-chemical properties
(Keys and MacCary, 1971). In the perspective of quality of water, the contamination of water
resources is of vital importance for the environment as well as human well-being (Emmanuel et
al., 2009; Muhammad et al., 2011). The Contamination of drinking water is a fundamental
problem at global-scale triggered by different anthropogenic sources i.e. discharge of a variety of
chemicals and heavy metals (Rapant and Krcmova, 2007). The Groundwater quality may change
from one location to other due to different dynamics such as agricultural and mining activities
7|Page
etc. Similarly, changing water table has an influence on groundwater quality in an area with
shallow aquifer system. Groundwater quality is the main factor in water resources management
primarily in addressing the public health concern in emerging countries (Khan et al., 2013). To
assess the groundwater quality, different physio-chemical factors such as pH, EC and TDS are
studied (Popoola et al., 2019) at standard procedure of American Public Health Association
APHA. Recently, geospatial tools has been used extensively for monitoring as well as
management of water resources (Singh et al., 2004). The Groundwater potential zonation has
been carried out based on GIS and remote sensing techniques. (e.g., Venkatachalam et al., 1991;
Krishnamurthy et al., 1996; Jain, 1998; Sankar, 2002).
8|Page
maize, and vegetable. A small part of this area is plain and fertile where a variety of fruit plants
are grown-up by local people for their own use, many different fruits also grown-up by people
for their making money [Safeer Ullah et al 2014, Ali Kashif et al 2015].
9|Page
Figure.1.1 Regional tectonic map of North Pakistan showing geological setting of the Khyber
range area. MCT- Main Central Thrust; MBTMain Boundry Thrust; MFT- Main Frontal Thrust;
JB- Jhelum Balakot Fault; JT- Jammu Thrust; HN- Hissartang-Cherat-Nathia
Gali Thrust; IS- Indus Syntaxis; O- Oghi Fault; Ba- Banna Fault; b- Batal Fault; R- Raikot Fault;
NP-Nanga Parbat; M- Malakand Slice (After, Dipietro and Pogue, 2004).
1.4.2 Shagai formation is named after the Shagai Fort in the Khyber Pass by Stauffer (1968)
for the 30m unfossiliferous limestone (lower 15m dolomite and upper 15m brown limestone).
10 | P a g e
Khan et al (1989) included the Ali Masjid formation and LandiKotal slates in this formation and
show the lithology as shale, slate, limestone and dolomite.
1.4.3 Ali Masjid Formation Stauffer in 1968 called it Ali Masjid formation. Shale,
siltstone, sandstone, quartzite and limestone. The diagnostic features at the type locality are red
colored shale and an alternation of various lithologies. Basial parts of formation, siltstone with
subordinate shale and volcanic ash, followed by sandstone and quartzite, fine to medium grained,
medium to thick bedded.
1.4.4 Khyber Limestone Stauffer in 1968 introduced the name Khyber limestone.
Limestone is dominant lithology and is dark grey massive recrystallized to grey to brown
dolomite, which is fine grained, thick bedded, contains calcite and quartz veins, at places
limestone can be oolitic and also include sills and dykes. Clay and sandstone beds can be found
at the base.
1.4.5 Ghundai Sar Formation Hussain and Yeats 1987, introduced its name. The
formation consists of interbedded dolomite, marble, limestone, argillite and quartzite. Argillite
includes slates and phyllites of light to dark grey color. Quartzite is fine to medium grained,
white to grey color. Basic rocks intrusions are also observed. Crinoids. Coral. Mollusks.
Bryozons are reported from this formation.
1.4.6 Lowera Mena Formation Hussain, 1987 called it Lowera Mena formation. The
formation dominantly composed of phyllite, phyletic slates, interbedded limestone. Greyish to
whitish quartzite. Quartz veins and granitic intrusion are common. Devonian fossils Crinoid and
Brachiopods are common.
11 | P a g e
Fig 1.2 shows the stratigraphic column of the Khyber ranges
12 | P a g e
The objectives of the proposed research work are:
13 | P a g e
CHAPTER NO: 2
GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION
2.1 Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) is a
central property of a material that measures how powerfully it resists electric current. A low
resistivity shows a material that freely allows electric current. Resistivity is generally symbolized
by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m). For
example, if a 1 m3 solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the
resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m. (Book,
Lowrie, William (2007).
2.1.1 Concept
Subsurface exploration is purposely to identify a layer of the aquifer via the geophysical
electrical resistivity method. In order to obtain a 2-dimensional ground profile the resistivity
method is taken on for scanning the subsurface. This method measures the resistance of the
direct electrical current travel through the soil. The resistivity values are then utilized to interpret
and correlate the soil properties such as density, porosity, and quality of groundwater. (Aziman,
2017)
The resistivity values for rocks and soil ingredients are considerably reliant on the degree of
fracturing, porosity of the rock, and the salinity of the groundwater. The resistivity value is
dissimilar between dry and wet material, and thus it is suitable for search out the ground water.
Furthermore, the resistivity of groundwater is governed by dissolved salt and can be varied
between 0.05 ohm.m for saline groundwater to 1000 ohm.m for glacial melt water. Innovative
equipment in geophysical exploration, especially in electrical resistivity has encouraged
scientific study on groundwater exploration. The study is capable to produce the subsurface
14 | P a g e
resistivity in 2-dimension image. The tube well drilling site is decided by way of interpreting the
surface geological mapping and electrical resistivity results. (Aziman, 2017) Three factors
including the temperature, the concentration of ions in solution, and the nature of ions plays
crucial role in weighing the electrical behaviour (resistivity and conductance) of the pore water.
Table 2.1 make available an array of resistivity values for various genre of water.
Table 2.1: Electrical Resistivity of Water (Ohm-m) (Keller et al 1996).
Precipitation 30 -1000
Water for irrigation and stock watering (max. salt content 0.25%) > 0.65
Since the deviation in soil temperature is often minor; thus the influence of temperature is often
insignificant on the whole process.
15 | P a g e
Figure 2.1 shows setting of potential and current electrodes. (Naeem et al, 2021).
Figure 2.2 Shows the ABEM terrameter LS system Field setup. (ABEM, 2015)
17 | P a g e
and Maidment (1993) are just a little that exemplify the profits of GIS to surface-water modeling.
Although numerous of the benefits of GIS apply to both surface water and ground-water
modelling, chiefly those related to spatial data management, the modelling procedures used are
quite different.
18 | P a g e
timely statistics than could be provided by a ground-water model on its own. Though there is
abundant concern in SDSSs for water resources, few systems specific to ground-water
management have advanced beyond the conceptual stage (Loucks and da Costa 1991; Fedra
1991). The theoretical background for developing SDSSs consist of GISs, hydrological models,
and practiced systems is delivered by numerous researchers (Fedra 1993; Moore et al. 1993;
Walsh 1993; Leip nik et al. 1993), while Fürst et al. (1993) discuss SDSS issues specific to
ground-water management.
19 | P a g e
Chapter No: 3
20 | P a g e
Figure 3.1 shows the outlines of the study area (LandiKotal, Khyber region) (Via google access
at 1/7/2022).
21 | P a g e
Figure 3.2 shows arc toolbox, extract by mask of GIS.
We downloaded DEM from the aforementioned website. The file was 52 MB jpg form. The
mentioned file is not the exact DEM of the study area, so we use the abovementioned tool of GIS
means masking to mask the interested area.
Investigation was carried out by the PHED department for sake of drilling wells in the area.
To evaluate the quality of water in the study area the department collects water samples from the
different wells.
22 | P a g e
3.3.1 Analytical Methods Applied
The physico-chemical constraints (parameters) of water samples examine as per the standard set
for the Standard Methods of American Public Health Association (Association, 2012). Table 3.1
shows the analysis parameters and their corresponding methods as follows:
Table.3.1. Parameter and analysis method
Sr.# PARAMETERS ANALYTICAL METHOD
1 Color (TCU) Sensory Test
2 Electrical E.C meter, Hach-44600-00, USA
Conductivity(µS/cm)
3 pH pH meter, Hanna Instrument, Model 8519, Italy
4 Turbidity( NTU) Turbidity meter, Lamotte, Model 2008, USA
5 Alkalinity (ppm) 2320, Standard method (2005) APHA
6 Bicarbonate (ppm) 2320, Standard method (2005) APHA
23 | P a g e
Chapter No: 4
Figure 4.1 shows red cross section lines drawn for graphs.
24 | P a g e
4.1 North to South lines graph
25 | P a g e
Figure 4.3 shows graph of third line from N-S.
26 | P a g e
Figure 4.5 shows graph of second line from W-E.
27 | P a g e
4.3 Cross lines graph
Figure 4.7 shows graph of line started from upper right to lower left side of the map.
Figure 4.8 shows graph of line started from upper left side to lower right side.
28 | P a g e
4.4 Discussion
In all the above graphs various colors represent different parameters. If we look at these graphs
carefully, the light green color represent elevation is same, however both water table and bedrock
follow the elevation pattern and show variation.
In graph of Fig 4.1 water table lie near to the surface and water flow seems from north to south.
The middle cross section line of the map formed the Fig 4.2 in which water table goes little
downward from the surface compare to the Fig 4.1 and here also the water flow is from north to
south. Fig 4.3 is somehow different from above two. Here water table again come near to the
surface compare to Fig 4.2. The southern portion of the graph is more elevated than the northern
which show that water flow is from south to north.
Fig 4.4 we divided its graph into three portion. Water flow in first portion is from west to east.
Middle portion show water flow constant, however the last portion show a clear flow to the east.
Fig 4.5 the water flow is from west to east. Fig 4.6 shows great variation from Fig 4.4 and Fig
4.5. Here water table lies a little deeper from the surface. The graph represent last west-east
portion which show that east-southern part is elevated from west-southern part. Unlike the above
two graph it show water flow from east to west.
Fig 4.7 and Fig 4.8 are the graph of lines that drawn from NE-SW and NW-SE respectively. We
talked about the water flow in the above given graphs, these confirm the above statement. Fig 4.8
shows that the first portion is elevated compare to the last portion. And in Fig 4.7 show that last
portion is a little bit elevated than first portion. So the overall flow is from NE side towards SW
of the map.
29 | P a g e
pipes. While this higher pH doesn't pose any health risks, it can cause skin to become dry, itchy
and irritated.
(a) (b)
30 | P a g e
Figure 4.5 (a) shows the pH values of the ground water (b) Shows the total dissolved solid
TDS.
31 | P a g e
Wells Name Color PH EC Turbidity TDS Hardness Ca Mg ALKY HCO3 Cl NO3
Chritian Colony
LandiKotal
Turbid 7.4 881 68.7 440 216 29 33 76 76 60 14.3
Ibrar Kalli
LandiKotal
Clear 7.03 607 0.67 303 216 40 30.3 88 88 28 0.9
32 | P a g e
Chapter No: 5
Recommendations from the study analysis is 1) It is of great importance to explore the potential
of ground water for deeper aquifers, drinkable water ground water generally lies within the first
two kilometers of the earth surface, the area geology shows the presence of sedimentary rock
which could act as a potential aquifer for water storage. A geophysical electrical resistivity
survey with higher geometrical spread, suitable for evaluation of the at least one kilometer from
the ground surface is recommended, this might increase the chances of groundwater and will
help in handling water shortages for local population, 2) Secondly The surplus water during the
rainy season should be avoid to leave the areas, the water runoff could be dammed and latter
channelized to the far reach of the study area to recharge the depleted ground water.
33 | P a g e
References
Ali K, Gul B, Hussain F, Khan H, Ali M, Ali S, Ali S & Junaid K (2015). The study of algae: the
non-vascular aquatic weeds from various fresh water bodies of Peshawar Pakistan. Pak J Weed
Sci Res 21(1): 111-122.
Aziman, M., Hazreek, Z. A. M., Azhar, A. T. S., Fahmy, K. A., Faizal, T. B. M., Sabariah, M., ...
& Ismail, M. A. M. (2018, April). Electrical Resistivity Technique for Groundwater Exploration
in Quaternary Deposit. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 995, No. 1, p. 012110).
IOP Publishing.
Abe, J. O., Popoola, A. P. I., Ajenifuja, E., & Popoola, O. M. (2019). Hydrogen energy,
economy and storage: review and recommendation. International journal of hydrogen
energy, 44(29), 15072-15086.
Arlen, Myron, Norman L. Higinbotham, Andrew G. Huvos, Ralph C. Marcove, Theodore Miller,
and I. C. Shah. "Radiation‐induced sarcoma of bone." Cancer 28, no. 5 (1971): 1087-1099.
Bitner, M. J. (1991). Marketing Mix and Its Relationship to Service Quality. Service quality:
Multidisciplinary and multinational perspectives, 23.
Bertin, J. and Loeb, J. (1976) Experimental and Theoretical Aspects of Induced Polarization, Vol
I and II, Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin-Stuttgart, 335p.
Boulkroun, S., Samson-Couterie, B., Dzib, J. F. G., Lefebvre, H., Louiset, E., Amar, L., ... &
Zennaro, M. C. (2010). Adrenal cortex remodeling and functional zona glomerulosa hyperplasia
in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension, 56(5), 885-892.
34 | P a g e
Gleick, Peter H. Water in crisis. Vol. 100. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Kamaruddin, M. A., Ibrahim, M. H., Thung, L. M., Emmanuel, M. I., Niza, N. M., Shadi, A. M.
H., & Norashiddin, F. A. (2019). Sustainable synthesis of pectinolytic enzymes from citrus and
Musa acuminata peels for biochemical oxygen demand and grease removal by batch
protocol. Applied water science, 9(4), 1-10.
Khan, H. A. A., Shad, S. A., & Akram, W. (2013). Resistance to new chemical insecticides in
the house fly, Musca domestica L., from dairies in Punjab, Pakistan. Parasitology
research, 112(5), 2049-2054.
Leipnik, M. R., Kemp, K. K., & Loaiciga, H. A. (1993). Implementation of GIS for water
resources planning and management. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, 119(2), 184-205.
Lew, Bob, Jenny Huen, Pengpeng Yu, Lu Yuan, Dong-Fang Wang, Fan Ping, Mansor Abu
Talib, David Lester, and Cun-Xian Jia. "Associations between depression, anxiety, stress,
hopelessness, subjective well-being, coping styles and suicide in Chinese university
students." PloS one 14, no. 7 (2019): e0217372.
Loucks, D. P., and da Costa, J. R, eds. (1991). Decision Support Systems:Water Resourc:es
Planning. NATO Advanced Science Institute Series. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Germany.
Mahmood, Z., Basharat, M., & Bashir, Z. (2012). Review of classical management
theories. International journal of social sciences & education, 2(1).
Moore, I. D. • Turner, A. K., Wilson, J. P., Jenson, S. K., and Band, L. E.(1993). "GIS and land-
surface-subsurface modeling." Envir. Modeling with GIS, M. F. Goodchild, B. O. Parks, and L.
T. Steyart, eds., Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., 196-230.
35 | P a g e
Nabi, Rizwana Begum Syed, et al. "Nitric oxide regulates plant responses to drought, salinity,
and heavy metal stress." Environmental and Experimental Botany 161 (2019): 120-133.
Naeem, U. A., Gabriel, H. F., Khan, N. M., Ahmad, I., Ur Rehman, H., & Zafar, M. A. (2021).
Impact of urbanization on groundwater levels in Rawalpindi City, Pakistan. Pure and Applied
Geophysics, 178(2), 491-500.
Protocols for Terrameter LS, LS2, ABEM (Sweden) November 21, 2015.
Pogue, K. R., DiPietro, J. A., Khan, S.R., Hughes, S. S., Dilles, J. H. and Lawrence, R. D.
(1992), Late Paleozoic rifting in northern Pakistan. Tectonics, 11, 871-883.
Quraishi, Imran H., et al. "An epilepsy-associated KCNT1 mutation enhances excitability of
human iPSC-derived neurons by increasing Slack KNa currents." Journal of Neuroscience 39.37
(2019): 7438-7449.
Rapant, S., & Krčmová, K. (2007). Health risk assessment maps for arsenic groundwater
content: application of national geochemical databases. Environmental Geochemistry and
Health, 29(2), 131-141.
Sen, R., Ghosal, S., Das, S., Balti, S., & Chakrabarti, J. (2014). Competing endogenous RNA:
the key to posttranscriptional regulation. The Scientific World Journal, 2014.
Shah, S. M. I., Siddiqui, R. A. and Talent, J.A. (1980). Geology of the eastern Khyber Agency,
N.W.F.P. Geol. Surv. Pakistan, Rec., 44, 90.
Singh, N. N., Androphy, E. J., & Singh, R. N. (2004). In vivo selection reveals combinatorial
controls that define a critical exon in the spinal muscular atrophy genes. Rna, 10(8), 1291-1305.
Ullah A & Ullah S (2016).Vascular plant diversity in Landi Kotal Valley, Khyber Agency,
Pakistan. FUUAST Journal of Biologyc 1: 6(2).
Ullah, Safeer, Asad Ullah, and Abdur Rashid. "Medicinal diversity of weeds in the historical
valley of Landikotal, Khyber Agency, Pakistan." Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res 20, no. 4 (2014): 531-
539.
36 | P a g e
Walsh, R. E., & Vaughan, F. E. (1993). Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision. Perigee
Books.
Watkins, D. W., McKinney, D. C., Maidment, D. R., & Lin, M. D. (1996). Use of geographic
information systems in ground-water flow modeling. Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management, 122(2), 88-96.
(Books: Fundamentals of Geophysics, Comprehensive Physics for Class XII, Signal Integrity:
Simplified)
(https://www.giscourse.com/extract-by-mask-using-arcgis/).
37 | P a g e