Tank Manual 300 Foundation Design and Construction

Sump. Center sump elevation should be exactly to specification. The sump should
rest fully on well compacted soil. If the base under the center sump has any
tendency to shift or settle, an unformed, polypropylene fiber reinforced 4-inch thick
pad should be installed and checked for elevation before the basin is installed.
Leak Detection Grooves. Follow the rules below for grooves:
• Grooves in the concrete pad are best made by saw-cutting. As an option,
“floating” the grooves while concrete is fresh has also given good results.
• Grooves should line up and extend to the “rat holes” cut in the existing shell on
cone up bottom replacements. The last 12 to 15 inches will have to be chiseled.
On cone down bottoms, grooves shall stop 12 to 15 inches from the shell,
which will not have “ratholes.”
• Grooves should extend to the distance from the shell that the concrete saw can
cut on replacement cone down bottoms.
• The groove layout should be checked against proper drawing detail. Note the
difference between the cone up and cone down groove pattern.

343 Bottom-to-Foundation Seal

Before placing the new bottom plates (or annular ring), a band of sealant is placed at
the edge of the foundation or pad. This sealant prevents groundwater from entering
under the tank.

350 Tank Settlement

Tanks are relatively flexible structures which tolerate a large amount of settlement
without signs of distress. However, tank settlement has caused failures such as
inoperative floating roofs, shell and roof buckling damage, leaks, and loss of tank
contents. Foundation design, soil conditions, tank geometry and loading, as well as
drainage, all have a significant effect on settlement.
Large petroleum tanks are generally constructed on compacted soil foundations or
granular material, while smaller tanks are often built on concrete slabs. The
settlement covered in this discussion pertain to large tanks (over 50 feet in diameter)
because most large tanks are built on foundations where the thickness, elasticity and
compressibility of the foundation and subsoil layers can vary enough to produce
non-planar distortions when uniformly loaded. However, the basic principles apply
to all tanks, especially uniform settling and planar tilt.
When filled, tank contents will uniformly load the foundation beneath the tank as
the result of hydrostatic pressure in a disk pattern. However, the tank edge:
• carries an increased load from the shell and roof weight.
• can suffer loading effects such as twisting of the plates under the shall due to
shell rotation.
Note The tank edge is defined as that area of the tank which is comprised of the
tank shell, the roof supported by the shell, and the foundation directly beneath.

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For these reasons, most settlement problems occur in the foundation that is under
the outside edge of the tank. Settlement problems are assessed by taking elevation
readings at the base of the tank. Nonetheless, failures have occurred from interior
settling that went undetected in elevation readings.
Settlement failure poses serious consequences to safety and surrounding property.
Until the mid 1950s, tanks were limited to about 200,000 bbls capacity. Since then,
capacity has increased to 800,000 and 1,000,000 bbl. Considering these tank sizes,
criteria must be available to ascertain the extent of settlement and correction
procedures.

351 Spotting Settlement Problems

Tank settling can be indicated by any of the following:
• Roof binding on floating roof tanks.
• Damage or early wear-out of floating roof seals.
• Shell buckling in fixed or floating roof tanks.
• Roof buckling in fixed roof tanks.
• Loss of support in fixed-tank, roof support columns.
• Cracking of welds.
• Loss of acceptable appearance.
• Over stressed piping connections
• Accelerated corrosion due to drainage pattern changes on the outside of
the tank.
• Inoperative or less effective drainage on the interior of the tank, especially
where cone-up, cone-down, or single sloped bottoms are used.
• Increased susceptibility to seismic damage as a result of distorted, over stressed
or deformed bottoms.
• Leaks in the bottom of shell.
The most serious failure results in leakage or loss of contents. The presence of even
a small crack in the tank bottom can be a serious threat to the integrity of the tank.
Several notable settlement failures have followed this sequence:
1. Development of an initial leak caused by a crack in the tank bottom.
2. Washed out foundation support immediately near the initial leak location,
causing the crack to grow from lack of support.
3. Increased leakage and undermining of the support under the tank. The bottom
plates separate from themselves or from the shell where the foundation has
washed away.
Prior to several incidents [1] leakage was seen emanating at the chime, but the
contents could not be pumped out before a major failure occurred.

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352 Kinds of Settling

Tank settlement occurs in the following categories:
• Uniform Settlement
• Planar Tilt
• Differential Shell Settlement
• Global Dishing
• Local Interior Settling
• Sloped Bottoms
• Edge Settlement

Uniform Settling
In this type of settling the soil conditions are relatively uniform, soft or
compressible, and a storage tank will slowly, but uniformly sink downward as
shown in Figure 300-16. Uniform settling poses no significant problems; however,
there are two important side effects.

Fig. 300-16 Uniform Settlement

Water Ingress. Water Ingress occurs when a depression or water trap is formed
around the tank's periphery where it meets the soil. When it rains, moisture
accumulates under the tank bottom near the shell or chime region and corrodes the
bottom.
Piping. Piping connected to the tank will eventually become over stressed by the
tank movement unless sufficient flexibility is designed into the piping system.
To assess the degree of uniform settlement, simply monitor elevations at the base of
the tank.

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Planar Tilt
In this mode the tank tips as a rigid structure. (See Figure 300-17). Often planar tilt
accompanies uniform settlement. Planar tilt can be assessed from an external tank
inspection conducted by taking elevation readings at the base of the tank. The
following may occur as the tilt becomes severe.

Fig. 300-17 Planar Tilt Settlement

Appearance. The human eye is sensitive to vertical lines. With a relatively small
angle of tilt the appearance of a tank begins to look strange. The public or
employees may begin to question the safety of the tank and the operating and
maintenance practices of the owner. Planar tilt limited to D/50 is a reasonable
plumbness specification that provides an acceptable tank appearance.
Hydrostatic Increase. The tilt of the tank results in an increase in hydrostatic head
as shown in Figure 300-17.
If the increased stress causes the shell to exceed the design-allowable stress, there
are several solutions:
• Lower the liquid level.
• Operate the tank slightly above allowable stresses.

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Reduced Storage Capacity. Because the maximum liquid level is often just
beneath the roof or overflow, the allowable liquid level may have to be reduced to
accommodate the planar tilt.
Ovalizing. If a tank tilts, the plan view will be an ellipse, shown in Figure 300-17.
Because floating roof tanks have specific clearances and out-of-round tolerances for
their rim seals to work properly, planar tilt can cause a seal problem. However, the
amount of planar tilt would have to be extreme for ovalizing to become a problem.

Differential Shell Settlement

Differential settlement, alone or in combination with uniform settlement and planar
tilt, results in a tank bottom which is no longer a planar structure. This type of
settlement problem can be assessed by taking elevation readings around the
circumference of the tank shell, where the bottom projects beyond the shell.
The readings can then be plotted as shown in the Figure 300-18. If the bottom of the
tank is planar, then a cosine curve may be fitted through the measured points.
However, if there is differential edge settlement, then a best-fit cosine curve can be
fitted to these points.
Differential shell settlement is more serious than uniform or planar tilt settlement
because deflection of the structure on a local scale is involved which produces high
local stresses. Differential edge settlement results in two main problems.
Ovalizing. As shown in Figure 300-19, differential settlement occurring in the tank
bottom near the shell produces an out-of-round condition at the top of tanks which
are not restricted in movement (e.g., a floating roof tank). One of the most serious
problems with bottom differential-edge settlement in floating roof tanks is the
operation of the floating roof. Because floating roof seals have specific tolerance
limits between the edge of the roof and the tank shell, ovalizing can interfere with
the operation or destroy the seal itself.
If the bending stiffness of the tank is much less than the extensional stiffness (thin
wall structure), then the theory of extensionless deformations may be used to
compute the relationship between differential settlement and radial deformation at
the top of the tank.
It has been found that with specific readings of settlement, the following finite
difference equation may be used to estimate ovaling:

2
DH N
r = --------- ------- ∆S i
2 π2
(Eq. 300-6)

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Fig. 300-18 Differential Tank Settlement

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Fig. 300-19 Problems Resulting from Shell Out-of-Roundness Due to Nonuniform Settlement
Derived from Hydrocarbon Processing, August, 1980. Pg. 102. Used with permis-
sion.

where:
i = station number of elevation reading taken at base of tank
r = radial shell displacement at top of tank
N = number of stations or readings
H = shell height at which radial displacements are calculated
D = tank diameter
∆S = measured settlement at ith location
x = circumferential shell coordinate
Shell Stresses. Non-planar, differential settlement may generate shell stress near the
top of the tank and may result in buckling of the upper shell courses. In the past, the
amount of differential settlement allowed was determined by arbitrarily limiting the
differential settlement to a constant, which represented a ratio of the settlement to
the span between consecutive settlement measurements. Figure 300-20 shows how
various structures, particularly buildings, are damaged when the slope represented
by the deflection-to-span ratio exceeds some value.
One commonly used limit [2] is
1
∆S = ---------
450
(Eq. 300-7)

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Fig. 300-20 Limiting Angular Distortion Adapted from Berrum, 1963

:+(5(

where:
l = length between settlement readings, feet
∆S = allowable settlement
Local slopes limited to approximately l/450 to l/350 applied to tanks have proven
conservative, and result in tanks being releveled when further settlement could have
been tolerated.
The API 653 formula uses a factor of safety of two times:

2
σy 1
∆S = .011 ------------
2EH
(Eq. 300-8)

Global Dishing
The entire tank bottom settles relative to the shell. This may occur singly or in
combination with other forms of settlement. There is no one form of global settling,
however, the majority of tank bottoms do tend to form a dished shape as shown in
Figure 300-21. There are several other common global settling patterns and investi-
gators have recommended criteria for each type as shown in Figure 300-22. [3]
The problems associated with general global settling are:
• High stresses generated in the bottom plates and fillet welds.
• Tensile stresses near the shell-to-bottom welds that may cause shell buckling.

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Fig. 300-21 Dish Settling

Fig. 300-22 Normalized Settlement of Tank Bottom

• Change in calibrated tank volumes (strapping charts and gauges).

• Change in the drainage of the tank bottom profile and puddling when
attempting to empty tank.
The literature suggests maximum global dishing values that range from D/50 to
D/100 depending on foundation type, safety factor or empirical data. The value

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stated in the 1st edition, of API 653 is D/64. For global dishing these values appear
to be reasonable. A 100 foot diameter tank using the provisions of Appendix B of
API 653 would have a total dish settlement of B=.37R where B is in inches and R is
in feet of 18.5 inches. However, for values of R less than 3 - 5 feet these limitations
are not really applicable to local settling as explained later.
The methods presented above are based upon the large deflection theory of circular
flat plates with edges that are not free to move radially. However, when the
difference in settlement between the center and the periphery of the tank is large,
there are indications that the bottom membrane does move inward radially or the
shell will be pulled in as shown in Figure 300-21. From theoretical considerations,
the difference in membrane stresses generated between a circular plate simply
supported with a fixed edge and an edge that is free to move radially is a factor of
about 3. [4] This means that the stresses will be 1/3 as high for bottom plates that
are free to slide as for those that are not. When the tank is loaded with liquid, the
bottom plates are probably held in place more securely; therefore, it may not be a
valid assumption to use the free edge condition.
For other modes of global settling it has been suggested [5] that different allowable
settlements be provided for the different configurations. This is shown in
Figure 300-22.

Local Interior Settling

Local settling that occurs in the interior of tanks often takes the form of depressions
as shown in Figure 300-23. Local interior settling poses similar problems to Global
Dishing and the proposed methods of assigning a tolerance are again based upon the
theory of large deflection. Some of the methods include a relaxation, when the
settling occurs near the tank wall, to take into account the freedom of the plate near
the shell to slide radially inward as the depression increases.

Fig. 300-23 Bottom Settlement From API 653, Figure B-7 & B-8. Courtesy of American Petro-
leum Institute.

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Note that the tank fabrication process leads to buckles and bulges in the bottom
plates. When the tank is filled with liquid, these tend to level out, but often reappear
when the liquid is removed. Most of the models currently proposed for developing
settlement criteria do not take into account the initial waviness of the bottom.
This type of settling is inevitable in compacted earth foundations because soil
composition and thickness varies under the tank. Deformations are usually formed
gradually, without sharp changes in slope, so that the bottom plates are adequately
supported. Risk of failure from this type of settlement is minimal unless there are
serious problems with the welding integrity.
When large voids form under the tank bottom, the bottom plates may lift off the soil
completely as shown in Figure 300-23. Although this is not usually a problem, a
large void can lead to localized rippling effects. The tank releveling section covers
the problems associated with filling these voids with grout.

Sloped Bottoms
The previous settling discussions apply to flat bottom tanks; however, many tanks
have slopes intentionally built into the bottom. They fall into three categories:
1. Single slope
2. Cone up
3. Cone down
Because the design slope of these bottoms averages about one inch in ten feet, they
can still be considered flat bottoms and the previous sections apply.
However, one special situation arises when the bottom is sloped: Cone up bottoms,
subject to general dish settlement, can tolerate more total settlement than either flat
bottom, cone-down, or single-slope bottoms. As settling occurs, the bottom
compresses and becomes flat. As the soil settles below the tank, the compressive
stresses that were generated become relieved until the shell base becomes cone
down, approximately equal to the magnitude of the original cone up condition. See
Figure 300-24.
However, if the initial cone-up slope is significant, the settling relatively uniform,
and the bottom constructed with lap welded joints, a phenomenon known as rippling
can occur, usually during the hydrostatic test on newly constructed tanks. Because
of the linear layout of bottom plates and the use of fillet welds, a crease or a fold can
form, covering large parts of the diameter, as shown in Figure 300-24. The ripples
are typically unidirectional and occur in the long direction of the bottom plates. The
crease may be very severe (a radius curvature of approximately one foot is not
uncommon) and indicates that yield stresses have been exceeded. The ripple can act
as a stiffening beam and cause increased differential settlement and bottom failure.
The allowable settlement of cone up should be more than twice that of a flat or
otherwise sloped-bottom tank. The maximum slope should be ¾ inch per 10 feet to
avoid rippling.

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Fig. 300-24 Tank Bottom Ripples

Edge Settlement
Edge settlement occurs in the bottom plates near the shell as shown in Figure
300-25. It is difficult to determine this condition from the exterior of the tank;
however, seen from inside the tank, this is one of the most obvious forms of settling.
Edge settlement occurs frequently in tanks that have been built on grades or
compressible soils. If the soil has not been compacted sufficiently or becomes soft
when wet, the probability of edge settlement increases. Edge settlement is mainly
due to increased loading on the foundation at the periphery from the weight of the
steel. Usually the foundation has not been extended far enough beyond the tank
radius to prevent lateral squeezing of the foundation (see Figure 300-25).
Edge settling can occur locally in soft spots around the edge of the foundation;
however, it usually involves a rather substantial portion of the tank. Edge settlement
is rarely seen in tanks that are constructed on reinforced concrete ringwall
foundations. It is more common where the tank is built on a crushed stone ringwall
foundation.
The two fillet welds between the annular plate, shell, and the bottom plates induce
stresses into the annular plate that cause upward bulges. Not strictly edge
settlement, these bulges may contribute to it by creating an initial slope in the
annular plate which in turn sets up residual stresses that cause the tank bottom under
the shell to apply greater downward pressure on the soil. The initial slope may be
attributed to edge settlement when it was caused by the welding. Proper weld
procedures, careful selection of the welding sequence for all welds in the bottom
annular plate, and careful fitup should minimize this problem.

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Fig. 300-25 Edge Settlement From API 653, Figure B-5. Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.

353 Settlement Criteria

To date there is no appropriate method for estimating tolerable edge settlement.
There are, however, numerous tanks in service showing edge settlement with
magnitudes of 6 to 18 inches over a span of 1 to 2 feet and functioning without leaks
or failures.
Edge settlement is unlike other kinds of settling. API 653 and other proposals are
based upon a model that is similar to the dishing models described above. Because
this type of settlement involves substantial yielding of the bottom plates (apparent
from the large deflections over short spans), any model that uses an allowable stress
basis for limiting settlement is probably extremely conservative. A strain-limiting
approach may be more appropriate.
The following two figures (Figure 300-26 and Figure 300-27 can be used to deter-
mine the maximum allowable edge settlement for areas with bottom lap welds
approximately parallel to the shell (Figure 300-26) as well as perpendicular to the
shell (Figure 300-27). The maximum allowable edge settlement for areas with a lap
weld at an arbitrary angle to the shell can be determined by using the equation:

Bα = Be − (Be − Bew) x sinα

(Eq. 300-9)

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where Bew and Be are from Figures 300-26 and 300-27 respectively, and α is the
angle of the weld to a tank centerline (see Figure 300-28).

Fig. 300-26 Maximum Allowable Edge Settlement for Areas with Bottom Lap Welds Approxi-
mately Parallel to the Shell From API 653, Figure B-10. Courtesy of American
Petroleum Institute.

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Fig. 300-27 Maximum Allowable Edge Settlement for Areas with Bottom Lap Welds Approxi-
mately Perpendicular to the Shell From API 653, Figure B-11. Courtesy of Amer-
ican Petroleum Institute.

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Fig. 300-28 Edge Settlement with a Lap Weld at an Arbitrary Angle to the Shell From API 653,
Figure B-12. Courtesy of American Petroleum Institute.

354 Designing for Settlement

Depending on the degree and type of settlement expected (determined from similar
installations in the area or from soil surveys), there are several means of designing
for expected settlement with increasing effectiveness:
1. Standard lap-welded bottom
2. Annular plates with lap-welded bottom
3. Butt-welded bottoms
These construction methods increase in effectiveness (1-3), and they also increase in
price. Unless needed for reasons high settlement, the butt-welded tank bottom is
generally ruled out on a cost/benefit basis. Because the standard lap welded tank
bottom is the most economic, there is a tendency to use this design for locations
even where significant settlement is expected.
Additional construction measures can be more effective, such as deeper levels of
soil compaction, crushed stone ringwalls, reinforced concrete ringwalls or slabs on
ringwall foundations.
The use of annular plates reduces edge settlement. The use of concrete ringwalls
virtually eliminates edge settlement.

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