Further Algebra and Functions 1: Roots of Polynomial Equations

Exercise 1: Solving polynomial equations

Solutions

1. Find the two solutions of the equation 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 18 = 0.

Completing the square gives

(𝑧 − 3)2 − 9 + 18 = 0

which if we rearrange, we obtain

(𝑧 − 3)2 = −9.

Therefore, the two solutions of the given quadratic equation are

𝑧 = 3 ± √−9 = 3 ± 3𝑖.

2. Given that the cubic equation 𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 − 6 = 0 has a complex root equal to 1 + 𝑖, find the other
two roots.

As the cubic equation has real coefficients, it follows that all of its complex roots must occur in
conjugate pairs. Therefore, 1 − 𝑖 is also a root of the equation.

We may now calculate the corresponding quadratic factor of the cubic equation, by expanding
the product
(𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖)) (𝑧 − (1 − 𝑖))

To help with this calculation, we are going to group together in each factor, 𝑧 with the real part
of each root
((𝑧 − 1) − 𝑖) ((𝑧 − 1) + 𝑖))

The advantage of this approach, is that we now have a difference of two squares, and so we can
quickly expand the brackets
(𝑧 − 1)2 − 𝑖 2 = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 1 + 1 = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2.

We may now factorise the given cubic equation

𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 − 6 = 0

into the previously calculated quadratic factor and a linear factor

(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 − 3) = 0.

From this, we deduce that the two other roots of the cubic equation are given by 1 − 𝑖 and 3.
3. The quadratic equation 𝑧 2 + 𝑝𝑧 + 𝑞 = 0, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are real numbers, has a complex root equal to
4 − 2𝑖. Calculate the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Since 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both real numbers, it follows that 4 + 2𝑖 is also a root of the quadratic
equation.

We may now express the quadratic equation in terms of its two roots
(𝑧 − (4 + 2𝑖))(𝑧 − (4 − 2𝑖)) = 0

To calculate the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞, we are just required to now expand the brackets and equate
the coefficients.

To expand the brackets efficiently, we are going employ the same trick as was demonstrated in
the last question, where we grouped together in each factor, 𝑧 with the real part of each root
((𝑧 − 4) − 2𝑖)((𝑧 − 4) + 2𝑖) = 0

Expanding and noting the difference of two squares, we obtain

(𝑧 − 4)2 − 4𝑖 2 = 0

which simplifies as
𝑧 2 − 8𝑧 + 20 = 0.

Therefore, by equating the coefficients, we deduce that 𝑝 = −8 and 𝑞 = 20.

4. Given that the equation 𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 − 10 = 0 has an integer solution, find of all its roots.

To find an integer solution of the cubic equation, we are going use trial and error.

Let us define the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 − 10. Evaluating the function at integer values,
we observe
𝑓(1) = 1 − 4 + 9 − 10 = −4
𝑓(2) = 8 − 16 + 18 − 10 = 0.

It therefore follows from the factor theorem, that (𝑧 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑧). We may now
factorise the cubic
𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 − 10 = 0

using the known linear factor to obtain

(𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 5) = 0.

Hence, the two other roots of the cubic equation are given by the solutions of
 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 5 = 0.

We may compute these solutions, by completing the square

(𝑧 − 1)2 − 1 + 5 = 0

which if we rearrange yields

𝑧 = 1 ± √−4 = 1 ± 2𝑖.

Hence, the three roots of the cubic are 𝑧 = 2, 1 + 2𝑖, 1 − 2𝑖.

5. One of the roots of the quartic equation 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 + 14𝑧 2 − 36𝑧 + 45 = 0 is 3𝑖. Find the remaining
roots.

As the polynomial has real coefficients, it immediately follows that −3𝑖 is also a root of the
equation. We can now calculate a quadratic factor of the quartic by expanding the product of its
two known linear factors
(𝑧 − 3𝑖)(𝑧 + 3𝑖) = 𝑧 2 − 9𝑖 2 = 𝑧 2 + 9.

Factorising the quartic equation, with the previous quadratic factor gives
(𝑧 2 + 9)(𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5) = 0.

Therefore, the other two roots may now be determined by solving

𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0.

We may find the solutions of this quadratic equation by completing the square
(𝑧 − 2)2 − 4 + 5 = 0

which gives 𝑧 = 2 ± 𝑖.

Therefore, the four roots are given by 𝑧 = ±3𝑖, 2 ± 𝑖.

6. Determine whether the following statements are true or false.
a) A cubic equation with real coefficients may have a repeated complex root of the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑦𝑖, with 𝑦 ≠ 0.
b) Any polynomial 𝑝(𝑧) with real coefficients which satisfies 𝑝(1 + 2𝑖) = 0, has (𝑧 − 1 + 2𝑖) as a
linear factor.
c) The complex number 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the cubic equation 2𝑧 3 + 𝑧 − 1 = 0.

a) False.
As the cubic equation has real coefficients, all of its complex roots must occur in conjugate
pairs.

Therefore, if a complex number 𝑤 is a repeated root of the cubic equation, then it follows
that its conjugate 𝑤 ∗ is also a repeated root. We have therefore found at least four complex
roots of the cubic equation, which is a contradiction, as every cubic equation has exactly 3
solutions.

b) True.
Since 𝑝(1 + 2𝑖) = 0, then it follows from the factor theorem that (𝑧 − (1 + 2𝑖)) is a linear
factor of 𝑝(𝑧).

As the polynomial has real coefficients, then we also know that its conjugate 1 − 2𝑖, is a root
as well, and therefore (𝑧 − (1 − 2𝑖)) = (𝑧 − 1 + 2𝑖) is also a factor of the polynomial.

c) False
Let 𝑝(𝑧) = 2𝑧 3 + 𝑧 − 1.
If 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation, then it must be the case that 𝑝(1 + 𝑖) = 0.

Evaluating the polynomial at 1 + 𝑖, gives

𝑝(1 + 𝑖) = 2(1 + 𝑖)3 + (1 + 𝑖) − 1 = 2(1 + 3𝑖 + 3𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 ) + 𝑖

which simplifies as
𝑝(1 + 𝑖) = 2 + 6𝑖 − 6 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 = −4 + 5𝑖.

Therefore, we deduce that 1 + 𝑖 is not a root of the given cubic equation.

7. Two of the roots of the quartic equation 𝑎𝑧 4 + 𝑏𝑧 3 + 𝑐𝑧 2 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑒 = 0 are given by 2𝑖 and 3 − 𝑖.

Given that all of the coefficients are real, find each of theirs values.
 As the coefficients of the polynomial are real, we deduce that the four roots of the quartic
equation are given by
𝑧 = ±2𝑖, 3 ± 𝑖.
Hence, we may equivalently express the quartic equation as a product of its four roots
(𝑧 − 2𝑖)(𝑧 + 2𝑖)(𝑧 − (3 + 𝑖))(𝑧 − (3 − 𝑖)) = 0.

Expanding, by first rewriting the last two linear factors as

(𝑧 − 2𝑖)(𝑧 + 2𝑖)((𝑧 − 3) − 𝑖)((𝑧 − 3) + 𝑖) = 0

gives
(𝑧 2 − 4𝑖 2 )((𝑧 − 3)2 − 𝑖 2 ) = 0.

This simplifies as
(𝑧 2 + 4)(𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10) = 0.

We may now expand the brackets again, to obtain the quartic equation
𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 14𝑧 2 − 24𝑧 + 40 = 0.

Hence, we deduce that the coefficients are given by

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −6, 𝑐 = 14, 𝑑 = −24, 𝑒 = 40.

8. Given that the quartic equation 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 + 11𝑧 2 − 14𝑧 − 30 = 0 has an integer solution, find all four
of its roots.

Let us begin by finding an integer solution to the equation.

If we define the function, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 + 11𝑧 2 − 14𝑧 − 30, then evaluating the function at
integer values we have

𝑓(1) = 1 − 4 + 11 − 14 − 30 = −36
𝑓(2) = 16 − 32 + 44 − 28 − 30 = −30
𝑓(3) = 81 − 108 + 99 − 42 − 30 = 0.

Therefore, by the factor theorem, we deduce that (𝑧 − 3) is a factor of the quartic equation. We
may now factorise the given quartic
𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 + 11𝑧 2 − 14𝑧 − 30 = 0

with the previously calculated linear factor as follows

(𝑧 − 3)(𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 + 10) = 0.

We can now calculate the other three roots of the quartic equation by solving the cubic equation
𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 + 10 = 0.
Examining this equation, we may observe by evaluating at 𝑧 = −1, that
(−1)3 − (−1)2 + 8(−1) + 10 = −1 − 1 − 8 + 10 = 0

and therefore, (𝑧 − (−1)) = (𝑧 + 1) is a linear factor.

Factorising the cubic equation into a linear and a quadratic factor, we obtain
(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 10)=0

and therefore, we may now find the remaining two roots of the quartic equation by solving the
quadratic
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 10 = 0.

For this, we will complete the square to obtain

(𝑧 − 1)2 − 1 + 10 = 0

which we may rearrange to find

𝑧 = 1 ± √−9 = 1 ± 3𝑖.

Therefore, the four roots of the quartic equation are given by 𝑧 = −1, 3, 1 ± 3𝑖.