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Introduction
“Two computers are said to be interconnected
if they interchange information. The
connection between the separate computers
can be done via a copper wire, fiber optics,
microwaves or communication satellite.”
A system with one control unit and many slaves,
or a large computer with remote printers and
terminals is not called network, it is called a
distributed system.

The aim of the computer network is the sharing

of resources among various devices.
The purpose of having computer network is to
send and receive data stored in other devices
over the network. These devices are often
referred as nodes.

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There are basic components of a computer network

• Message: It is the data or information which needs

to be transferred from one device to another
device over a computer network.
• Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and
needs to send the data to other device connected
to the network.

• Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data

from other device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device
to another device we need a transmission media such as
wires, cables, radio waves etc.
• Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both
sender and receiver, without a protocol two devices can be
connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In
order to establish a reliable communication or data sharing
between two different devices we need set of rules that are
called protocol. For example, http and https are the two
protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data to
internet, similarly SMTP protocol is used by email services
connected to the internet.

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Uses of Computer Network

• Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of
resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource
and user.
• Server-Client model: Computer networking is used
in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and
maintained by the system administrator. Clients are
the machines used to access the information stored
in the server remotely.

• Communication medium: Computer network

behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more
than one computer has an email system which
the employees use for daily communication.
• E-commerce: Computer network is also
important in businesses. We can do the business
over the internet. For example, amazon.com is
doing their business over the internet, i.e., they
are doing their business over the internet.

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Features

A computer network has following

features:
• Performance: Performance of a computer
network is measured in terms of response time.
The response time of sending and receiving data
from one node (computer in a computer network
are often referred as node) to another should be
minimal.
• Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a
computer network is to share the data between
different systems connected with each other
through a transmission media.

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• Backup: A computer network must have a central

server that keeps the backup of all the data that is to
be shared over a network so that in case of a failure
it should be able to recover the data faster.
• Software and hardware compatibility: A computer
network must not limit all the computers in a
computer network to use same software and
hardware, instead it should allow the better
compatibility between the different software and
hardware configuration.
• Reliability: There should not be any failure in the
network or if it occurs the recovery from a failure
should be fast.

• Security: A computer network should be secure so

that the data transmitting over a network should be
safe from unauthorized access. Also, the sent data
should be received as it is at the receiving node,
which means there should not be any loss of data
during transmission.
• Scalability: A computer network should be scalable
which means it should always allow to add new
computers (or nodes) to the already existing
computer network. For example, a company runs
100 computers over a computer network for their
100 employees, lets say they hire another 100
employees and want to add new 100 computers to
the already existing LAN then in that case the local
area computer network should allow this.

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Computer Network Architecture

A Computer Architecture is a design in which all

computers in a computer network are
organized. A architecture defines how the
computers should get connected to get the
maximum advantages of a computer network
such as better response time, security,
scalability etc. The two most popular
computer architectures are P2P (Peer to
Peer) and Client-Server architecture.

Peer to Peer Architecture

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In peer to peer architecture all the computers in a computer

network are connected with every computer in the network.
Every computer in the network use the same resources as
other computers. There is no central computer that acts as a
server rather all computers acts as a server for the data that is
stored in them.
Advantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture
1. Less costly as there is no central server that has to take the
backup.
2. In case of a computer failure all other computers in the
network are not affected and they will continue to work as
same as before the failure.
3. Installation of peer to peer architecture is quite easy as each
computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture

1. Each computer has to take the backup rather
than a central computer and the security
measures are to be taken by all the
computers separately.
2. Scalability is a issue in a peer to Peer
Architecture as connecting each computer to
every computer is a headache on a very large
network.

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In Client Server architecture a central computer acts as a

hub and serves all the requests from client computers.
All the shared data is stored in the server computer
which is shared with the client computer when a
request is made by the client computer.
All the communication takes place through the server
computer, for example if a client computer wants to
share the data with other client computer then it has
to send the data to server first and then the server will
send the data to other client.

Advantages of Client Server Architecture

1. Data backup is easy and cost effective as there is no
need to manage the backup on each computer.
2. Performance is better as the response time is greatly
improves because the server is more powerful
computer than the other computers in the network.
3. Security is better as unauthorized access are denied
by server computer and all the data goes through the
server.
4. Scalability is not an issue in this Architecture as large
number of computers can be connected with server.

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Disadvantages of Client Server Architecture

1. In case of server failure entire network is
down.
2. Server maintenance cost is high as the
server is the main component in this
Architecture
3. Cost is high as the server needs more
resources to handle that many client requests
and to be able to hold large amount of data.

Goals and Applications of networks:-

Resource sharing:- This is the main aim of a computer
network. It means to make all programs peripherals and
data available to any one computer on the network to all
other computers in the network without regard to the
physical locations of them. Thus user at large distances can
share the resources or can see data of a computer in the
same way that a local user uses them. Another aspect of
resource sharing is load sharing. That is if required, a job
can be performed using various computers in network by
portioning it which reduces time consumption and load
both for a particular computer.
High reliability:- A second goal is to provide high reliability by
having alternative sources of supply. For example, all files
could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of
them is Unavailable, the other copies could be available.

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Cost Reduction:- Another goal of networking is reduction of

cost. Resource sharing automatically reduces cost and
hence money can be saved.
Improve Performance:- Another closely related goal is to
increase the systems performance. The performance of a
computer can be improved by adding one or more
processors to it as the work load on it grows. For example if
the system is full instead of replacing it buy a larger one at
large expansive it is better to add more processors to it on
less cost and less disruption to the user.
Communication Medium:- Computer networks provide a
powerful communication medium. A file that was
updated/modified on a network can be seen by the other
users on the network immediately.

Network application:- Some of the network applications

in different fields are the following.
1. Marketing and sales
2. Financial services
3. Manufacturing. CAD, CAM etc.
4. Information services
5. Cellular telephone
6. Cable television
7. Teleconferencing
8. EDI
9. E-mail etc.

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Components
• Servers
• Clients
• Transmission Media
• Shared data
• Shared printers and other peripherals
• Network Interface Card
• Local Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Hub
• Switch
• Router
• LAN Cable

Computer networks share common devices, functions,

and features including servers, clients, transmission
media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware
and software resources, network interface card(NIC),
local operating system(LOS), and the network operating
system (NOS).
• Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files,
programs, and the network operating system. Servers
provide access to network resources to all the users of
the network. There are many different kinds of servers,
and one server can provide several functions. For
example, there are file servers, print servers, mail
servers, communication servers, database servers, fax
servers and web servers, to name a few. Sometimes it is
also called host computer, servers are powerful
computer that store data or application and connect to
resources that are shared by the user of a network.

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• Transmission Media - Transmission media are

the facilities used to interconnect computers
in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission
media are sometimes called transmission
medium channels, links or lines.
• Shared data - Shared data are data that file
servers provide to clients such as data files,
printer access programs and e-mail.

• Clients - Clients are computers that access and use

the network and shared network resources. Client
computers are basically the customers(users) of the
network, as they request and receive services from
the servers. These days, it is typical for a client to be
a personal computer that the users also use for their
own non-network applications.
• Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared
printers and peripherals are hardware resources
provided to the users of the network by servers.
Resources provided include data files, printers,
software, or any other items used by clients on the
network.

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Network Interface Card - Each computer in a

network has a special expansion card called a
network interface card (NIC). The NIC
prepares(formats) and sends data, receives data,
and controls data flow between the computer and
the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes
frames of data on to the physical layer, which
transmits the data to the physical link. On the
receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from
the physical layer and processes the message based
on its contents.

• Local Operating System - A local operating system

allows personal computers to access files, print to a
local printer, and have and use one or more disk and
CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples
are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98,
Windows XP etc. The network operating system is the
software of the network. It serves a similar purpose
that the OS serves in a stand-alone computer
• Network Operating System - The network operating
system is a program that runs on computers and
servers that allows the computers to communicate
over the network.

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• Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network

connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution center. When a computer
requests information from a network or a
specific computer, it sends the request to the
hub through a cable. The hub will receive the
request and transmit it to the entire network.
Each computer in the network should then
figure out whether the broadcast data is for
them or not.

• Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped

as one of computer network components. Switch is like
a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses
physical device addresses in each incoming messages
so that it can deliver the message to the right
destination or port. Unlike a hub, switch doesn't
broadcast the received message to entire network,
rather before sending it checks to which system or port
should the message be sent. In other words, switch
connects the source and destination directly which
increases the speed of the network. Both switch and
hub have common features: Multiple RJ-45 ports,
power supply and connection lights.

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• Router - When we talk about computer network components,

the other device that used to connect a LAN with an internet
connection is called Router. When you have two distinct
networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet connection
to multiple computers, we use a Router. In most cases, recent
routers also include a switch which in other words can be
used as a switch. You don’t need to buy both switch and
router, particularly if you are installing small business and
home networks. There are two types of Router: wired and
wireless. The choice depends on your physical office/home
setting, speed and cost.
• LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as data
cable or Ethernet cable which is a wired cable used to connect
a device to the internet or to other devices like computer,
printers, etc.

Topologies
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Mesh
• Tree

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Bus Topology
A bus topology is a multiple data communication circuit, that
makes it relatively simple to control data flow.
A bus topology consists of a single cable with the terminator at
each end.
In a bus topology, one of the nodes acts as the server and
transmits the data from one end to the other in a single
direction.
The Backbone cable in the bus topology depends on the type of
network card used in each computer, an RJ-45 network
cable or coaxial cable is used to connect them together.

Advantages:-
• The cable cost is low.
• Easy to expand.
• Repeater can be used to boost the signal.
• Easy to connect or remove devices in a network without
affecting any other device.
Disadvantage:-
• Heavy network traffic slows down the bus speed.
• In the case of any device failure, it is difficult to find faults in a
network.
• It is slower because one computer transmits at a time.
• It provides very low security because all the computers
receive the sent signal from the source.

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Ring Topology
In Ring Topology, each device/node is connected with its
neighboring node forming the shape of ring hence it is known
as Ring Topology.
There are two types of the Ring Topology based on the data
flow:
• Unidirectional and,
• Bidirectional
A Unidirectional ring topology handles data traffic in either
clockwise or anticlockwise direction. This data network, thus,
can also be called as a half-duplex network. A Unidirectional
ring topology is thus easy to maintain compared to the
bidirectional ring topology. The data flow in the ring topology
is based on the Token Passing principal, The token is passed
from one computer to the next, only the computer with the
token can transmit.

Advantages:-
• The uni-directional ring topology provides very high speed.
• It has better performance than bus topology, even when the
nodes are increased.
• Ring network can handle high volume of nodes in a network
(Robust)
• It can handle heavy traffic as compared to bus topology due
to Token passing.
• provides good communication over a long distance.
• maintenance of ring network is much easier than bus.
• no need of network server to control the flow of data.

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Disadvantages:-
• Addition and removal of any node in a
network is difficult and can cause issue in
network activity.
• The entire network will be impacted if one
workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each
workstation to the network is more expensive
than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (like workstations,
printers, laptops, servers etc.) connected directly to a central
device called as a network switch. Each workstation has a cable
that goes from its network interface card (NIC) to a network
switch.
A star network, where devices are connected to a central hub or
switch.
Characteristics of Star Topology:
• High Speed
• Very Flexible
• High Reliability
• High Maintainability

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Advantages and disadvantages of a star network

The advantages of a star network are:
• Easy to manage and maintain the network because each node
require separate cable.
• Easy to locate problems because cable failure only affect a single
user.
• Easy to extend the network without disturbing to the entire
network
• Due to Hub device network control and management is much
easier.
• Fault identification and removing nodes in a network is easy.
• It provides very high speed of data transfer.
The disadvantages of a star network are:
• Entire performance of the network depends on the single device
hub.
• If the hub device goes down, the entire network will be dead.
• Star topology requires more wires compared to the ring and bus
topology.

Tree
In Tree Topology, all the computer are connected like the
branches of a tree. In Computer Networking, tree topology
is known as a combination of a Bus and Start network
topology. The main advantages of this topology are better
flexibility and scalability.
Tree network topology is the simplest topology in which only
one route exists between any two nodes on the network.
The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all
branches spring from one root hence (Tree Topology).
Characteristics of Tree Topology:-
• Ideal if nodes are located in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.
• Better Flexibility
• Better Scalability

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Advantages:-
• It is a combination of bus and star topology
• It provides high scalability, as leaf nodes can add more
nodes in the hierarchical chain.
• Other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of
their nodes get damaged
• It provides easy maintenance and fault identification.
• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages:-
• Large cabling is required as compared to star and bus
topology.
• On the failure of a hub, the entire network fails.
• Tree network is very difficult to configure than
other network topologies.

Mesh
A network setup where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another, allowing for most
transmissions to be distributed even if one of the connections
go down. It is a topology commonly used for wireless
networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer
setup on a network using a mesh topology.

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Different types of mesh topology

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially-
connected mesh topology.
• In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network
has a connection to each of the other computers in that
network. The number of connections in this network can
be calculated using the following formula (n is the
number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
• In a partially-connected mesh topology, at least two of
the computers in the network have connections to
multiple other computers in that network. It is an
inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network.
If one of the primary computers or connections in the
network fails, the rest of the network continues to
operate normally.

Advantages of a mesh topology

• Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple
devices can transmit data simultaneously.
• A failure of one device does not cause a break in the
network or transmission of data.
• Adding additional devices does not disrupt data
transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
• The cost to implement is higher than other network
topologies, making it a less desirable option.
• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and
time consuming.
• The chance of redundant connections is high, which
adds to the high costs and potential for reduced
efficiency.

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Partial Mesh
Partial mesh topology is a way to map multiple routers in such a
way that they are tightly coupled among themselves but not
fully inter-connected.
• Red dotted lines mean the communication is frequent but
there is no direct linkage
• Black line means the connections have frequent
communication between them

Explanation: With these red dotted lines between

AD and BC we are eliminating the need to go HQ
all the time for communication to complete and
so we have added these partial connection lines
between these ends. So a partial mesh is a subset
of the full mesh topology, here we eliminate our
need to go to head center all the time rather we
make partial connections to ease our process. In
partial mesh, the links are arranged strategically
based on frequent operating paths or signals to
ease of usage.

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Diagram

Types of Computer Network: LAN,

MAN and WAN
A computer network is a group of computers connected with
each other through a transmission medium such as cable,
wire etc.
There are mainly three types of computer networks based on
their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

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LAN
1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with
each other in a small places such as school, hospital,
apartment etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with
the local area network thus the data which is shared is safe on
the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their
speed can range anywhere from 100 to 100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new
evolution to the LANs that allows local area network to work
on a wireless connection.

MAN
MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs
to a larger network of computers. In Metropolitan
area network various Local area networks are
connected with each other through telephone lines.
The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger
than LANs and smaller than WANs(wide area
networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or
town.

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WAN
Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data.
The size of the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can
cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet
connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN
are mobile broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.
Advantages of WAN:
• Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN
is the that we do not need to maintain the backup and store
data on local system as everything is stored online on a data
centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.
• Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts
the data that we share online that way the data is secure and
minimises the risk of unauthorized access.

• Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the

bandwidth based on the need, a large organization can
have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data
faster and efficiently.
• Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world
though internet connection thus we can connect with the
person in another country through WAN which is not
possible is other type of computer networks.
Disadvantages of WAN:
• Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large
amount of systems, there is possibility that we may
unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system
and become threat to our privacy and may lead to data
loss.
• Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
• Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN
covers large area, it is really difficult to pin point the exact
location where the issues raised and causing the problem.

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WAN

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Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Internet: Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible computer
network of interconnected computer networks (internetwork)
that transmit data using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).
Largest Internetwork in the world is Internet.
The terms World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet are not the
same. The Internet is a collection of interconnected computer
networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless
connections, etc. The World Wide Web is one of the services
accessible via the Internet, along with various others including
email, file sharing, remote administration, video streaming,
online gaming etc. World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of
interconnected documents and other resources, linked
together by hyperlinks and URLs.

Most of these interconnected documents in

World Wide Web (WWW) are created using a
markup programming language called HTML
(HyperText Markup Language). Even the
webpage you are reading now is created using
HTML (HyperText Markup Language)

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Intranet
An intranet is a private network that is contained within
an enterprise. Typical intranet for a business
organization consists of many interlinked local area
networks (LAN) and use any Wide Area Network
(WAN) technology for network connectivity. The main
purpose of an intranet is to share company information
and computing resources among employees. Intranet is
a private Internetwork, which is usually created and
maintained by a private organization. The content
available inside Intranet are intended only for the
members of that organization (usually employees of a
company).

Extranet
An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's
intranet that is extended to users outside the
company like suppliers, vendors, partners,
customers, or other business associates.
Extranet is required for normal day-to-day
business activities. For example, placing purchase
order to registered vendors, billing & invoices,
payments related activities, joint venture related
activities, product brochures for partners,
discounted price lists for partners etc.

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Diagram

Internet(Public network)

Extranet(Vendor, business
partner)

Intranet
(Company only
inside network)

Broadcast((p2mp) and point to point

networks
Broadcast mode of communication is a
communication in which large number of
receivers are linked to a single transmitter.
Examples of such a system are radio,
television.
on a broadcast network, the communication
channel is shared by all the machines on the
network; packets sent by any machine are
received by all the others.

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Point to point mode of communication is a communication

over a link between a single transmitter and receiver.
Example of such a system is a telephone.
. Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To
go from the source to the destination on a network made
up of point-to-point links, short messages, called packets in
certain contexts, may have to first visit one or more inter-
mediate machines. Often multiple routes, of different
lengths, are possible, so finding good ones is important in
point-to-point networks. Point-to-point transmission with
exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is sometimes
called unicasting.

Differences between

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Data is transported over a network by three simple

methods i.e. Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast. So
let’s begin to summarize the difference
between these three:
• Unicast: from one source to one destination i.e. One-
to-One
• Broadcast: from one source to all possible
destinations i.e. One-to-All
• Multicast: from one source to multiple destinations
stating an interest in receiving the traffic i.e. One-to-
Many.
A simple example of multicasting is sending an e-
mail message to a mailing list. Teleconferencing and
videoconferencing also use multicasting

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Modes of transmission
What is data transmission?
Data transmission refers to the process of transferring
data between two or more digital devices. Data is
transmitted from one device to another in analog or
digital format. Basically, data transmission enables
devices or components within devices to speak to
each other.
There are two methods used to transmit data between
digital devices: serial transmission and parallel
transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits
one after another over a single channel. Parallel data
transmission sends multiple data bits at the same
time over multiple channels.

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What is serial transmission?

When data is sent or received
using serial data transmission, the data bits are
organized in a specific order, since they can only be
sent one after another. The order of the data bits is
important as it dictates how the transmission is
organized when it is received. It is viewed as a
reliable data transmission method because a data bit
is only sent if the previous data bit has already been
received.

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Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous

and synchronous.
• Asynchronous Serial Transmission
Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and
start bits are used between data bytes to synchronize
the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the
data is transmitted correctly. The time between
sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps
are used to provide time between transmissions.
The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that
no synchronization is required between the
transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost
effective method. A disadvantage is that data
transmission can be slower, but this is not always the
case.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in
time with a master clock. The data transmitter and
receiver both operate using a synchronized clock
frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps
are not used. This means that data moves faster
and timing errors are less frequent because the
transmitter and receiver time is synced. However,
data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being
synced correctly between devices. In comparison
with asynchronous serial transmission, this
method is usually more expensive.

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Asynchronous transmission – an extra bit is added to

each byte to alert the receiver to the arrival of new
data. 0 is used as a start bit, while 1 used as a stop bit.
Synchronous transmission – no extra bit is added to each
byte. Data is transferred in batches, each of which
contains multiple bytes.
When is serial transmission used to send data?
Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance
data transfer. It is also used in cases where the amount
of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that
data integrity is maintained as it transmits the data
bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way,
data bits are received in-sync with one another.
Data integrity is a concept and process that ensures the accuracy,
completeness, consistency, and validity of an organization's
data.

What is parallel transmission?

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data
bits are transmitted over multiple channels at the same
time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using
serial transmission methods.
Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the
same time, the order in which a bit string is received can
depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data
source, user location, and bandwidth availability. Two
examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In the first
parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct
order. In the second parallel interface, the data is sent in the
correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data

Transmission
The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial
transmission are:
• it is easier to program;
• and data is sent faster.
Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it
requires more transmission channels than serial transmission.
This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on
transfer distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of
example of where this can be seen is with a voice over IP
(VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can
also be seen when there is skipping or interference on a video
stream.

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When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:
• a large amount of data is being sent;
• the data being sent is time-sensitive;
• and the data needs to be sent quickly.
A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send
data is video streaming. When a video is streamed to a
viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a
video pausing or buffering. Video streaming also
requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The
data being sent is also time-sensitive as slow data
streams result in poor viewer experience.

Basis for
Comparison Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

Data flows in 2 Data flows in multiple directions, 8 bits (1

Definition directions, bit by bit byte) at a time
Cost Economical Expensive

Number of bits
transferred per clock
pulse 1 bit 8 bits or 1 byte
Speed Slow Fast

Used for long distance

Applications communication Used for short distance communication
Computer to printer, the PCI (Peripheral
Computer to computer Component Interconnect) bus, the IDE
(USB), Bluetooth, (Integrated Drive Electronics) bus, and the
ZigBee, Wifi, and RAM (Random Access Memory) bus. half-
Example Ethernet, full-duplex duplex

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Applications. Serial transmission is between two

computers or from a computer to an external
device located some distance away. Parallel
transmission either takes place within a
computer system (on a computer bus) or to an
external device located a close distance away.

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Isochronous
• An isochronous data transfer system combines the features
of an asynchronous and synchronous data transfer system.
An isochronous data transfer system sends blocks of data
asynchronously, in other words the data stream can be
transferred at random intervals.
• Each transmission begins with a start packet. Once the
start packet is transmitted, the data must be delivered with
a guaranteed bandwidth. Isochronous data transfer is
commonly used for where data must be delivered within
certain time constraints, like streaming video.
• Isochronous systems do not have an error detection
mechanism (acknowledgment of receipt of packet) because
if an error were detected, time constraints would make it
impossible to resend the data.
• for example:- TV images are broadcast at the rate of
30 images per second; they must be viewed at the
same rate.

Bits in a synchronous data stream must be transferred

in sync with a clock signal. The control signals for the
data are derived from a clock signal. Synchronous data
transfer systems usually have an error detection
mechanism. If an error is detected the data can be
resent.
Bits in an asynchronous data stream can be
transferred at random intervals and the data rate of the
stream is not required to be constant. Asynchronous
systems use a start bit to signal the beginning of a data
transmission. A stop bit is used to signal the end of a
data transmission. Asynchronous data transfer systems
usually have an error detection mechanism. If an error
is detected the data can be resent.

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Simplex Mode Half Duplex Mode Full Duplex Mode

Transmission mode means transferring of data

between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are
designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are
interconnected. There are three types of
transmission mode:-
• Simplex Mode
• Half Duplex Mode
• Full Duplex Mode

• Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,

as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on
a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The
keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can
only give the output.

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Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and

receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is
no need for communication in both direction at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one
at a time and messages are sent in both the
directions.

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Full-Duplex Mode

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive

simultaneously. In full duplex mode, signals going in one
direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and other for receiving. Or the capacity
is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication

in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however must be
divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and
listen at the same time.

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design issues for the layers

A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach
of computer networks. Some of the main design issues are
as follows −
Reliability
• Network channels and components may be unreliable,
resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So, an important
design issue is to make sure that the information
transferred is not distorted.
Scalability
• Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are
continually increasing leading to congestion. Also, when
new technologies are applied to the added components, it
may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design
should be done so that the networks are scalable and can
accommodate such additions and alterations.

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Addressing
• At a particular time, innumerable messages are being
transferred between large numbers of computers. So, a
naming or addressing system should exist so that each
layer can identify the sender and receivers of each
message.
Error Control
• Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in
the data streams that are communicated. So, the layers
need to agree upon common error detection and error
correction methods so as to protect data packets while
they are transferred.

Flow Control
• If the rate at which data is produced by the
sender is higher than the rate at which data is
received by the receiver, there are chances of
overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow
control mechanism needs to be implemented.
Resource Allocation
• Computer networks provide services in the form
of network resources to the end users. The main
design issue is to allocate and de-allocate
resources to processes. The allocation/de-
allocation should occur so that minimal
interference among the hosts occurs and there is
optimal usage of the resources.

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Statistical Multiplexing
• It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each
message while it is being transferred from the source to the
destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed,
so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each
host.
Routing
• There may be multiple paths from the source to the
destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal path
among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There
are several routing algorithms that are used in network
systems.
Security
• A major factor of data communication is to defend it
against threats like eavesdropping and surreptitious
alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate
mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data
through authentication and cryptography.

Protocol Hierarchies in Computer Network

A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for
data communication. Rules are basically defined for each and
every step and process at time of communication among two
or more computers. Networks are needed to follow these
protocols to transmit data successfully. All protocols might be
implemented using hardware, software, or combination of
both of them. There are three aspects of protocols given
below :
• Syntax –
It is used to explain data format that is needed to be sent or received.
• Semantics –
It is used to explain exact meaning of each of sections of bits that are
usually transferred.
• Timings –
It is used to explain exact time at which data is generally transferred along
with speed at which it is transferred.

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Protocol Hierarchies :

Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain

a large number of pieces of hardware and software. To just
simplify network design, various networks are organized
and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software,
one on top of another. The number, name, content, and
function of each layer might vary and can be different from
one network to another. The main purpose of each of layers
is just to offer and provide services to higher layers that are
present. Each and every layer has some particular task or
function. In programming, this concept is very common.
The networks are organized and arranged as different layers
or levels simply to reduce and minimize complexity of
design of network software.

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Example :
Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The
diagram shows communication between Host 1 and Host 2.
The data stream is passed through a number of layers from
one host to other. Virtual communication is represented using
dotted lines between peer layers. Physical communication is
represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers.
Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The
layers at same level are commonly known as peers. The peer
basically has a set of communication protocols. An interface is
present between each of layers that are used to explain
services provided by lower layer to higher layer.

Advantages :
• The layers generally reduce complexity of
communication between networks
• It increases network lifetime.
• It also uses energy efficiently.
• It does not require overall knowledge and
understanding of network.

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The Internet Model

• The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model was very
successful at getting people to concentrate on the specifics of
a network implementation. However, implementations based
directly on it were not popular, principally because they were
complex and quite slow. By sticking too rigidly to the layers
and following the principle of insulation between the layers it
is difficult to get any real speed from an implementation.
• Another model, the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) Reference Model, also called the
Internet Reference Model and the Department of Defense
Four-Layer Model, was developed by DARPA (Defense
advance research project agency) in the 1970 with the
principles of the Internet in mind: namely, resilience to
damage and flexibility of application.

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OSI TCP/IP

Reference Model
• Reference Model offers a means of standardization which is
acceptable worldwide. Since people using the computer network
are located over a wide physical range and their network devices
might have heterogeneous architecture. In order to provide
communication among heterogeneous devices, we need a
standardized model i.e. a reference model, which would provide us
way how these devices can communicate regardless their
architecture.
We have two reference models such as OSI model
and TCP/IP reference model, however, the OSI model is a
hypothetical one but the TCP/IP is absolutely practical model.
OSI Model
• OSI is acronym of Open System Interconnection. This model is
developed by the International organization of Standardization
(ISO) and therefore also referred as ISO-OSI Model.
• The OSI model consists of seven layers as shown in the following
diagram. Each layer has a specific function, however each layer
provide services to the layer above.

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Physical Layer
The Physical layer is responsible for the following activities:
• Activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical
connection.
• Defining voltages and data rates needed for transmission.
• Converting digital bits into electrical signal.
• Deciding whether the connection is simplex, half duplex or
full duplex.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer performs the following functions:
• Performs synchronization and error control for the
information which is to be transmitted over the physical
link.
• Enables error detection, and adds error detection bits to
the data which are to be transmitted.

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Network Layer
Following are the functions of Network Layer:
• To route the signals through various channels to the other
end.
• To act as the network controller by deciding which route
data should take.
• To divide the outgoing messages into packets and to
assemble incoming packets into messages for higher levels.
Transport Layer
The Transport layer performs the following functions:
• It decides if the data transmission should take place on
parallel paths or single path.
• It performs multiplexing, splitting on the data.
• It breaks the data groups into smaller units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.

Session Layer
The Session layer performs the following functions:
• Manages the messages and synchronizes conversations
between two different applications.
• It controls logging on and off, user identification, billing and
session management.
Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer performs the following functions:
• This layer makes it sure that the information is delivered in
such a form that the receiving system will understand and
use it.
Application Layer
The Application layer performs the following functions:
• It provides different services such as manipulation of
information in several ways, retransferring the files of
information, distributing the results etc.
• The functions such as LOGIN or password checking are also
performed by the application layer.

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TCP/IP Model
• TCP/IP model is practical model and is used in the Internet.
TCP/IP is acronym of Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol.
• The TCP/IP model combines the two layers (Physical and Data
link layer) into one layer i.e. Host-to-Network layer. The
following diagram shows the various layers of TCP/IP model:

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Application Layer
• This layer is same as that of the OSI model and performs the
following functions:
• It provides different services such as manipulation of
information in several ways, retransferring the files of
information, distributing the results etc.
• The functions such as LOGIN or password checking are also
performed by the application layer.
• Protocols used: TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DN, HTTP, NNTP are the
protocols employed in this layer.

Transport Layer
• It does the same functions as that of transport layer in OSI
model. Here are the key points regarding transport layer:
• It uses TCP and UDP protocol for end to end transmission.
• TCP is reliable and connection oriented protocol.
• TCP also handles flow control.
• The UDP is not reliable and a connection less protocol also
does not perform flow control.
• Protocols used: TCP/IP and UDP protocols are employed in
this layer.

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Internet Layer
• The function of this layer is to allow the host to insert
packets into network and then make them travel
independently to the destination. However, the order of
receiving the packet can be different from the sequence
they were sent.
• Protocols used: Internet Protocol (IP) is employed in
Internet layer.
Host-to-Network Layer
• This is the lowest layer in TCP/IP model. The host has to
connect to network using some protocol, so that it can
send IP packets over it. This protocol varies from host to
host and network to network.
• Protocols used: ARPANET, SATNET (Satellite network), ,
LAN, packet radio are the protocols which are used in this
layer.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple
signals into one signal, over a shared medium. If
analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog
Multiplexing and if digital signals are multiplexed,
that process is Digital Multiplexing.
The process of multiplexing divides a communication
channel into several number of logical channels,
allotting each one for a different message signal or a
data stream to be transferred. The device that does
multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX while the
one that reverses the process which is
demultiplexing, is called as DEMUX.

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Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and
digital. They are further divided into FDM, WDM, and TDM.

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Analog Multiplexing
The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in
nature. The analog signals are multiplexed according to their
frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency
Division Multiplexing FDM. This technique uses various frequencies
to combine streams of data, for sending them on a communication
medium, as a single signal.
Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number
of channels through a single cable, uses FDM.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which
many data streams of different wavelengths are transmitted in the
light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the
signal decreases.
Example: Optical fiber Communications use the WDM technique, to
merge different wavelengths into a single light for the
communication.

Digital Multiplexing
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information.
Hence the available data is in the form of frames or packets,
which are discrete.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is
used to transmit a signal over a single communication
channel, with allotting one slot for each message. Of all the
types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and
Asynchronous TDM.

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Synchronous TDM
In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If
there are ‘n’ number of connections, then the frame is
divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each
input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is common
to all signals and hence same clock input is given. The mux
allocates the same slot to each device at all times.
Asynchronous TDM
In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for
each of the signals and the clock signal is also not in
common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot, transmits
nothing and sits idle, then that slot is allotted to another
device, unlike synchronous.

STDM

Sender end

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Receiver end

ATDM

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Some applications of time division

multiplexing
• It is used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
telephone lines.( is a circuit-switched telephone network system
that transmits both data and voice over a digital line.) (Video
Conferencing)
• It is used in PSTN (public switched telephone network),
provide the infrastructure and services for public
telecommunication. A PSTN lets users make landline telephone
calls to one another.
• It is used for some telephone systems.
• It is used in wireline telephone lines.
ISDN, or Integrated Services Digital Network, is a digital
communication system that allows speech and data to be
transmitted over existing phone lines. PSTN, or Public Switched
Telephone Network, is a traditional analogue communication
technology that uses copper lines to transfer voice signals.

TDM is applicable in digital audio mixing

systems, PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) optical
fiber communication or optical data
transmission system.
FDM is used in first-generation mobile phones
and also used for broadcasting AM & FM, used
in TV networks

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What Is Network Switching?

Network switching is the process of channeling
data received from any number of input ports
to another designated port that will transmit
the data to its desired destination. The device
through with the input data passes is called a
switch. Data entering a port is referred to
as ingress, while data leaving the port is
referred to as egress. The switch represents
the medium through which the data is routed
to its final destination. There are different
types of network switching.

Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is defined as the establishment of a
dedicated communication path between the two parties, or
nodes, within a physical network. This path (circuit) is
established and maintained for the duration of the session.
No matter the length of the communication session, the
circuit will remain and the data paths maintained. The
circuit is only terminated when the session ends. The
session consists of three phases: circuit establishment,
data transfer, and circuit termination/disconnect.
• This type of network switching is well suited for voice
communications and applications. In our illustration, the
two people communicating on the telephone lines from
across the room are using a dedicated communication
path. Their voices (data) follow a dedicated path.

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Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

• In the case of circuit Switching technique, the
communication channel is dedicated.
• It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay
occurs in the speed of data transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10
seconds during which no data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a
dedicated path is required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established
and no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is
wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other
data can be transferred even if the channel is free.

Communication through circuit switching has 3

phases:
1. Circuit establishment
2. Data transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect

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Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a
message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no
establishment of a dedicated path between the sender
and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message.
Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the
message is routed through the intermediate nodes
based on the information available in the message.

• Message switches are programmed in such a

way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire
message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and
forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an
independent entity.

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Advantages Of Message Switching

• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices
that improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be
varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient
storage to enable them to store the messages until the
message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding
facility provided by the message switching technique.

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Packet Switching
• The packet switching is a switching technique
in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known
as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving
end.
• Every packet contains some information in its
headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.

• Packets will travel across the network, taking

the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the
receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the
message will be sent to resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached,
then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.

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Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is
known as a datagram, is considered as an independent
entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward
the packet to the correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in
correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not
fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward
the packets.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as
connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as
connection-oriented switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a
preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to
establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a
logical connection.

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Applications
Circuit switching
• Traditional telephone system
• Analog telephone network.
• Optical mesh network.
• Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Message switching
Email is a common application for message switching. A delay in delivering email is allowed
real-time data transfer between two computers.
Packet Switching
Internet and most local area networks
GSM, LTE
Virtual circuits are costlier in installation and maintenance. They are widely
used by ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network, which is used for the
Telephone calls. Datagram networks are cheaper as compared to the Virtual
Circuits. They are mainly used by IP network, which is used for Data services
like Internet.

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