NETWORKING

NETWORKING
BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

CORE AREAS:
•Network Concepts Configuration

•Types of Networks •Data Communication
•Network Topology •Data Security and
•Network Control.
Transmission Media
•Network
COMPREHENSIVE NOTES FOR THE TEACHING & LEARNING
OF ELECTIVE ICT
❑BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) - Peprah Adusei

❑NETWORKING- Bits & Bytes - Peprah Adusei

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NETWORKING DEFINITION
A network is a collection of computers and devices
connected together via communications devices and
transmission media for the purpose of sharing
resources. A practical example of a computer
network is a collection of computers in the school
computer laboratory or an organization, etc.
connected together is called a computer network.
Every computer or device on a network can send and
receive data from any of the other computers or
devices connected to the network.
A computer which is not part of a network is
called a stand-alone computer. A computer
network is a set of computers connected
together for the purpose of sharing resources.
The most common resource shared today is
connection to the Internet. Other shared
resources include a printer or a file server.
Data Communication Model
• Computer communications describes a process in which

two or more computers or devices transfer data,
instructions, and information.
• The transmitter sends the message and the receiver
receives the message. The medium is the channel over
which the message is sent and the protocol is the set of
rules that guides how the data is transmitted from
encoding to decoding. The message of course is central
to all the components. The message is the data that is
being communicated.
The transmitter sends the message and the
receiver receives the message. The medium is the
channel over which the message is sent and the
protocol is the set of rules that guides how the data
is transmitted from encoding to decoding. The
message of course is central to all the components.
The message is the data that is being
communicated.
• Transmitter (Sender / Source): The person or the object which
sends data. The transmitter / sender or source is the person,
object or device that sends the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
• Receiver: The receiver is the person, object or device that
receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
• Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. It can consist of twisted
pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, laser or radio waves
(terrestrial or satellite microwave), telephone wires or wireless.

• Message: The message is the transmission (data) to be
communicated. It can consist of text, number, pictures,
sound, or video or any combination of these.
• Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data
communication. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking German cannot be understood by a person who
speaks only Japanese.
Advantages of Networking
Ability to
communicate
with
network users,
using e-mail,
short messaging
services, etc Ease of taking
Facility to
back ups since
save important
the data files are
information in a
saved in a server
network storage
computer in the
device
network
Advantages of
networking
Sharing software
Ability to
such as
access the
computer
Internet
games
Common use
of documents, Ability to
BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei images, photos, share
songs, video, software and
etc. hardware
Advantages of Networking
• Data and information can be shared between computers: The main
advantage of networking is sharing of data and information between
computers. Data and information in a server, can be accessed by clients
connected to the server.
• Less storage space: This saves space as well because the same data is not
stored in several computers unnecessarily.
• Ability to share resources: The devices like printer, scanner and modem can
be connected to network and shared by multiple users.
• N.B: Computer network allows sharing of hardware resources thereby
reducing hardware costs of an organization. For example, a printer can be
shared among the users in a network so that there’s no need to have
individual printers for each and every computer in the network.
• Ability to control central software (Sharing of program
/software): Software can be installed on a server computer and
shared by many users through client computers.
• Ability to connect at anywhere and at any time: By connecting
to internet, a user can access his / her documents and data at
anywhere and anytime (24×365).
• Security: Only the authorized clients can access the server
computer. Data and information in a network can be made secure.
• Facilitating communications
• Sharing software
• Transferring funds
• Reducing hardware cost of an organisation.

Disadvantages of Networking
• Aside the numerous advantages of a computer network, there are
some disadvantages of a computer network. Below are a few of
them:
• Possible security issues
One major disadvantage of networking is the difficulty in securing
data. Server can be accessed through any computer connected to
the network. Hence it is difficult to secure it from the hackers
(people who try to gain access to data without permission).
• Breakdown of network
In some topologies, breakdown of a computer or a cable can affect
the function of the other computers of the network.
• Virus
If one of the computers in the network gets a virus attack, this can
spread to other computers as well.
• Computer break downs
Due to defects or breakdown of the server, the other the clients can
be affected.
• Training requirements
• The need for a person who is specialized in network administration.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
• Networks usually are classified as a local area network,

metropolitan area network, or wide area network. The
main differentiation among these classifications is their
area of coverage.
• Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Wireless
• Inter Network (Internet)
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and
devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school
computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of
buildings.
A LAN connects computers inside a room or several rooms in a building.
A computer network built in a school, university, a small-scale business
or an office, school computer laboratory can be given as examples.
Each computer or device on the network, called a node, often shares
resources such as printers, large hard disks, and programs. Often, the
nodes are connected via cables. A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that
uses no physical wires. Very often, a WLAN communicates with a wired
LAN for access to its resources. A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that
uses no physical wires.
Characteristics of LAN
• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or

other regulatory controls.
• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to
the typical WAN.
• There are different types of Media Access Control
methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Ethernet,
Token ring.
• It connects computers in a single building, block or
campus, i.e. they work in a restricted geographical
area.
Advantages of LAN
• Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and
hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and
hardware purchases.
• Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network
instead of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
• Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
• Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the
server computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access
their data. Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
• Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to
manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
• Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.
Disadvantages of LAN
• High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
• Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of
each and every LAN user. Moreover, he can check the internet history and computer use
history of the LAN user.
• Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization
if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
• LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there
are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local
Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
• Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) connects LANs in a
metropolitan area such as in a city or town. MAN is a
combination of several Local Area Networks which covers less
than 16 miles. Examples include banking networks, institutes
and universities with branches.
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high-speed network
that connects local area networks in a metropolitan area
such as a city or town and handles the bulk of
communications activity across that region. A MAN typically
includes one or more LANs, but covers a smaller geographic
area than a WAN.
Characteristics of MAN
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

• Communication medium used for MAN are
optical fibers, cables etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing
applications.

Advantages of MAN
• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication

via high-speed carriers, such as fibre optic cables.
• It provides a good back bone for large network and
provides greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of
data in both directions simultaneously.
• A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city
or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
• More cable required for a MAN connection from

one place to another.
• It is difficult to make the system secure from
hackers and industrial espionage(spying)
graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a

large geographical area. These networks cover a wide area.
This can
be within or outside a country. The best example for WAN is
the Internet Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that
covers a large geographic area (such as a city, country, or
the world) using a communications channel that combines
many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and
radio waves. A WAN can be one large network or can consist
of two or more LANs connected together. The Internet is the
world’s largest WAN.
Characteristics of WAN
• It generally covers large distances (states,

countries, continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite,
public telephone networks which are connected
by routers.

Advantages of WAN
• Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on

the one network.
• Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
• Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These
messages can have picture, sounds or data included with them (called
attachments).
• Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be
shared by all the computers on the network without having to buy a
different peripheral for each computer.
• Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems
where some users may have older information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and

disrupting the network.
• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and
complicated. The bigger the network the more expensive it is.
• Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which
requires network supervisors and technicians to be employed.
• Security is a real issue when many different people have the
ability to use information from other computers. Protection
against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
International network (INTERNET)
Inter Network or Internet is a combination

of two or more networks. Inter network
can be formed by joining two or more
individual networks by means of various
devices such as routers, gateways and
bridges.
Network devices used in a network

HUB
A hub is a small rectangular box, often made of

plastic that receives its power from an ordinary wall
outlet. A hub joins multiple computers (or other
network devices) together to form a single network
segment. Its job is very simple: anything that
comes in one port is sent out to the others.

SWITCH
A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently.

By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can
“learn” where particular addresses are. For example, if it sees
traffic from machine A coming in on port 2, it now knows that
machine A is connected to that port and that traffic to machine
A needs to only be sent to that port and not any of the others.
This device connects multiple nodes to form a network. It
redirects the received information only to the intended
node(s).
Differences between the switch and hub
• The main difference is the data transmission speed.

Hub sends the transmitted data to all computers but
switch sends data to the relevant computer only.
Here hub may create an unnecessary network data
congestion.
• In data transmission, hub uses half duplex mode
and the switch uses full duplex
mode.
Router
A router is the smartest and most complicated

of the bunch. The router is used to connect
one network to another network or to the
Internet.
The router connects your computer or the
network to the Internet easily
Functions of Routers include
•They connect multiple networks.

•They determine the best path for sending
data.
•They filter signals.
•They repeat signals
REPEATER
A repeater connects two segments of your

network cable. It retimes and regenerates the
signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to
the other segments. When talking about,
Ethernet topology, you are probably talking
about using a hub as a repeater. Repeaters
require a small amount of time to regenerate
the signal. BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
This can cause a propagation delay which can affect
network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit
the number of repeaters that can be used in a row.
Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI
network model. A repeater is used when the signals
get weakened or distorted by transmission over long
distances.
Functions of the repeaters include
• They boost up signals to their original strength

• They retime and retransmit signals to another
segment.
• They essentially enable a number of cables
segments to be treated as a single cable.
• A repeater is used when the signals get weakened
or distorted by transmission over long distances.
Bridge
A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the

data packet, to tell where the message is going. It
reduces the traffic on other network segments, since
it does not send all packets. Bridges can be
programmed to reject packets from particular
networks

Functions of the Bridge include
•They connect networks

•They are used in dividing network into
segments
•They are also used to increase the
performance on a high-traffic segment.
Gateway
A gateway is a router equipped with all the

information which leads to route packets to
the destination host. A gateway can translate
information between different network data
formats or network architectures. A device
connected two or more networks.
TOPOLOGY
When we use the word topology in this

lesson, we're referring to how things in
a network are connected, as in a
configuration.

LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
A logical topology describes how the signals act on the
network media or the way that the data passes through
the network from one device to the next without
regard to the physical interconnection of the devices.
Logical topology can also refer to the signal
topology of the network, which is how the signals are
passed across the physical network. Logical topologies
are bound to the network protocols that direct how the
data moves across a network. BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
The physical topology is the layout/arrangement of

computers/nodes in a network. The physical topology
of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals. It describes how
network devices are physically connected - in other
words, how devices are actually plugged into each
other. We're talking about cables, wireless
connectivity, and more.
TOPOLOGY
Commonly used physical topologies are

star, bus, and ring and hybrid. Most
networks, including the Internet, use
combinations of these topologies. Physical
topology is the layout/arrangement of
computers/nodes in a network.
The Ethernet protocol is a common logical
bus topology protocol. Token ring networks
use a logical ring topology but physically
they are cabled using a star topology. In a
logical topology, network devices appear to
be connected to each other. How signals are
set up and transmitted is governed by
network protocols. BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Star Network
An a star network, all of the computers and devices
(nodes) on the network are connected to a central device
(hub or a switch) thus forming a star. Two types of devices
that provide a common central connection point for nodes
on the network are a hub and a switch. All data that
transfers from one node to another passes through the
hub or switch. Star networks are fairly easy to install and
maintain. Nodes can be added to and removed from the
network with little or no disruption to the network.
Features of Star Topology
• Every node has its own dedicated connection to

the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or
coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology
• Fast performance with few nodes and low network

traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of
the nodes can work smoothly.
Bus Network
• Here, all the connections are established
through a main cable. This cable is called the
backbone because any issue with the network
affects all the computers in the network. This
design is easy in networking and fewer cables
are required. However, a limited number of
computers can be connected.
Bus Network
• A bus network consists of a single central cable, to
which all computers and other devices connect. The
bus is the physical cable that connects the computers
and other devices. The bus in a bus network transmits
data, instructions, and information in both directions.
When a sending device transmits data, the address of
the receiving device is included with the trans-
mission so that the data is routed to the appropriate
receiving device. BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Features of Bus Topology
•It transmits data only in one direction.

•Every device is connected to a single
cable

Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to other network topologies.
• It is used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• It is easy to expand joining two cables together.
• One advantage of the bus network is that computers and other
devices can be attached and detached at any point on the bus
without disturbing the rest of the network.
• Another advantage is that failure of one device usually does not
affect the rest of the bus network.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
•Cables fails then whole network fails.

•If network traffic is heavy or nodes are
more the performance of the network
decreases.
•Cable has a limited length.
•It is slower than the ring topology.
Question:
Why is it is easier to diagnose

fault in Star topology than in Bus
topology

Answer
N.B: It is easier to diagnose fault in Star topology than in

Bus topology.
In Star topology each node is directly connected to a
central hub / switch, hence fault diagnosis becomes easy.
In bus topology all the nodes are connected to the
backbone cable. The signal travels through the entire
length of the backbone and is received by the node for
which it is intended. Hence, fault diagnosis is difficult.
Ring Network
• On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with

all computers and devices arranged along the ring. Data
transmitted on a ring network travels from device to device
around the entire ring, in one direction.

When a computer or device sends data, the data travels to
each computer on the ring until it reaches its destination. If a
computer or device on a ring network fails, the entire
network potentially could stop functioning.
A ring network can span a larger distance than a bus network,
but it is more difficult to install. The ring topology primarily
is used for LANs, but also is used in WANs.

Advantages of Ring Topology
• Transmitting network is not affected by high

traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
• Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

• Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the
network activity.
• Failure of one computer disturbs the whole
network.

Hybrid topology
Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more of the

primary topologies (i.e. bus, star, ring and mesh) to form a
new network.

Features of Hybrid Topology
•It is a combination of two or topologies

•Inherits the advantages and
disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting

is easy.
• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
•Complex in design.
•Costly.

Tree Topology
Tree topology has characteristics of both

bus and star topologies. In this design
several star topologies are connected to
a bus backbone cable. One of the
advantages of this is the ability to control
each network individually.

Mesh Topology
All the computers in the network are

connected with each other. Since this is
a complex connection pattern, it is
costly and difficult to control. However,
a breakdown of one computer does not
affect the connections in the network.
Mesh networking can be found on
internet.
Network Architectures/ Network Model Or
Network Design
• Network Architecture is the overall design of a computer
network that describes how a computer network is configured
and what strategies are being used. It mainly focuses on the
functions of the networks.
• It is also known as network model or network design. Network
architecture is categorized as
❑ Client/Server
Network
❑Peer-to-peer Network
❑Centralized Computing Network
• BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Client/Server
• On a client/server network one or more computers act as

a server that provides services and the other computers
(clients) on the network request services from the server.
A server is a computer that controls access to the
hardware, software, and other resources on the
network and provides a centralized storage area for
programs, data, and information.
• The clients are other computers or mobile devices on
the network that rely on the server for its resources. A
client is a computer that request services from a server
computer.
A server computer responds to the client computer
connected to the server. A network operating system
is installed to the server. The one who requests data
or information via internet or from an area network
is called a client (the computer that request
services from a server computer) and the one who
provides data and information is called the server (a
computer that provides services to clients and
controls access to hardware, software and other
resources). BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Client/Server diagram

Points to Note:
• A Web server is a computer that delivers requested Web

pages to your computer.
• A client/server network typically provides an efficient
means to connect 10 or more computers. Most client/server
networks require a person to serve as a network
administrator because of the large size of the network that
may be used by all computers on network
• On a client/server network, one or more computers act as a
server, and the clients access the server(s).
Advantages of Client/Server Networks
• Centralised control of resources and data.

• Easier to back up all network files at regular
intervals.
• Network operating system will have built in security
measures.
• Accessibility – the server can be accessed remotely
and across different platforms (Apple, Microsoft, Sun
and so on) BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Disadvantages of Client/Server Networks
• Expensive to setup.
• Administrator required to maintain the server.

Peer-to-Peer
Peer to peer networks allow users to share

resources (hardware, software, data and file)
and files located on their computers. On peer to
peer networks all computers are considered to
be equal.

Peer to peer networks are designed for small LANs
with typically up to 6 machines. Home networks and
very small offices are typically peer to peer. Peer to
peer networks work better in an environment where
users trust each other. One type of peer-to-peer
network is a simple, inexpensive network.

Each computer, called a peer, has equal
responsibilities and capabilities, sharing hardware
(such as a printer, scanner), data, or information with
other computers on the peer-to-peer network.
Each computer stores files on its own storage devices.
Thus, each computer on the network contains both
the server operating system and application software.
All computers on the network share any
peripheral device(s) attached to any computer.
Each computer on a peer-to-peer network
shares its hardware and software with other
computers on the network. With peer-to-peer
networks, there is no central server.
Peer to Peer Diagram

Advantages of Peer to Peer Networks
• Cheaper to set up as there is no need for dedicated

servers.
• Easy to set up as most modern operating systems can
be set up for peer to peer networking.

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Networks
• No easy centralised back up as all files are stored

locally. Security of data harder to implement as
files are not stored centrally.

Difference between Client/ Server and Peer-to-Peer
Client/ Server Peer-to-Peer
Server has to control ability while All computers have equal ability
client don’t
Higher cabling cost Cheaper cabling cost
It is used in small and large networks Normally used in small networks
with less than 10 computers.
One powerful computer acting as a No server needed
server
Install software only in the server Install software to every
while the clients share the software computer
Centralized computing network
A centralized computing network is a network in

which a central host computer performs data
processing and storage on behalf of clients. It is
different from the client-server network as a
client-server network consists of at least one
server and one or more client, as well as client-
server, provides high security of data and other
resources.
Types of Network Transmission Media
Types of Network
Transmission Media
Wired/Cable Wireless
(Unbounded / Unguided)
(Bounded / Guided)
Types of Network Transmission Media
• There are two (2) types of Network Transmission

Media. They are:
➢Wireless (Unbounded / Unguided)
➢Wire/Cable (Bounded / Guided)
Eg. Twisted pair (UTP and STP), Coaxial
Cables, Fiber Optic Cables etc.
Wire/Cable (Bounded / Guided)
A wire is the physical medium used to transfer data
from one network device to another. Wires are
often called guided media because they guide the
data transfer data from one point to another
without altering the frequencies, data impairment
are therefore reduced. Examples of guided media
include Twisted pair (UTP and STP), Coaxial
Cables, Fiber Optic Cables etc.
Twisted Pair Cable
• One of the more commonly used transmission media for
network cabling and telephone systems is twisted-pair
cable.
• Twisted-pair cable consists of one or more twisted-pair
wires (copper wires) bundled together (twisted into pairs)
• Each twisted-pair wire consists of two separate insulated
copper wires that are twisted together. The wires are
twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an electrical
disturbance that can degrade communications.
Disadvantages of twisted pair
• Susceptible to electromagnetic induction,

Radio frequency interference and noise
• Relatively low bandwidth
• Attenuation

Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms which are
❑Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
❑Shielded twisted-pair (STP)
which are manufactured in different increments
for various scenario.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
• It is the most common type of telecommunication when
compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists
of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour
plastic insulator. Identification is the reason behind
coloured plastic insulation.
• UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable
with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-
45 connector. These are very flexible and low-priced.
However, it is difficult to transmit data for a long distance
through UTP wires. It is suitable for maximum of 100
meters.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
• Installation is easy.
• Flexible
• Cheap
• It has high speed capacity.
• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies
like Ethernet.
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
• Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial

Cable
• Provides less protection from interference.
• 100-meter limit

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
• This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which
encases each pair of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic
noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding
also eliminates crosstalk.
• It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is
faster than the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more
expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair. STP is a
better quality and secure data transmission medium.
However, it is expensive.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
• Easy to install
• Performance is adequate
• Can be used for Analog or Digital
transmission
• Increases the signalling rate
• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
• Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
•Difficult to manufacture
•Heavy

Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax
(pronounced KO-ax), consists of a single copper
wire surrounded by at least three layers:
• an insulating material,
• a woven or braided metal, and
• a plastic outer coating.
Coaxial Cable
A – outer insulation / outer shield
B – wire mesh
C – inner insulation
D – centre wire / conducting core

Cable television (CATV) network wiring often
uses coaxial cable because it can be cabled over
longer distances than twisted-pair cable. Most of
today’s computer networks do not use coaxial
cable because other transmission media such as
fibre optic cable transmit signals at faster rates
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television
systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for
local area networks. The cables consist of copper or
aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically
of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant,
all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The
layers of insulation help minimize interference and
distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million
to more than 500 million bits per second.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity
• Data transmission without distortion.
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they
have better shielding when compared to twisted pair
cable.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
• Single cable failure can fail the entire

network.
• Difficult to install and expensive when
compared with twisted pair.
• If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to
grounded loop.
Fibre Optic Cable
• A fibre-optic cable consists of hair-thin strands of glass

or plastic that carry data as pulses of light.
• The core of a fibre-optic cable consists of dozens or
hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that use
light to transmit signals. Each strand, called an optical
fibre, is as thin as a human hair. Inside the fibre-optic
cable, an insulating glass cladding and a protective
coating surround each optical fibre.
Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of
glass fiber wrapped in protective layers that carries
data by means of pulses of light. It transmits light
which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic
cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation.
Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per
second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is
hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and
thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire
This capacity may be further increased by
the use of colored light, i.e., light of
multiple wavelengths. Instead of carrying
one message in a stream of monochromatic
light impulses, this technology can carry
multiple signals in a single fiber.
WIRELESS SYSTEM (Unbounded / Unguided)
• Data that is transmitted as signal through the air

without using physical medium is called unguided /
wireless media. Unguided medium transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
Signals are spread in to the atmosphere
(air), data can spread to any direction.
Examples of wireless communication include
radio transmission, satellite transmission,
Bluetooth, Infra Red, Wireless fidelity
(Wifi) etc.
Factors to be considered while selecting a
Transmission Medium
•Transmission Rate
•Cost and Ease of Installation
•Resistance to Environmental Conditions
•Distances
Advantages of wireless

Disadvantages of wireless
• High initial cost of setup

• Expensive towers and repeaters required
• Susceptible to interference
• Propagation delay
• Security risk
Data communication
Communication describes a process in which two or more

computers or devices transfer data, instructions and
information.
Data communication is the sending of data between
geographically separated computers. Data communication
is the process of transmitting data between two or more
communicating devices over some transmission media.
Establishing such connections between computing devices
is called computer networking.
Concepts of Data communication and its
related concepts computers
• Data communication is the sending of data between

geographically separated computers.
• Computer communications describes a process in which two
or more computers or devices transfer data, instructions,
and information. Some communications involve cables and
wires; others are sent wirelessly through the air.
• For successful communications, you need the following:
• A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit
data, instructions, or information.
• A communications device that connects the sending
device to a communications channel.
• A communications channel, or transmission media on
which the data, instructions, or information travel.
• A communications device that connects the
communications channel to a receiving device.
• A receiving device that accepts the transmission of
data, instructions, or information.
Components of Data Communication
• Hardware Components of Data Communication

e. g. Servers, bridges, modems, cables etc
• Software Components of Data Communications

Software Components of Data
Communications
• Communications software consists of programs that
help users establish a connection to another computer
or network;
• manage the transmission of data, instructions, and
information; and provide an interface for users to
communicate with one another.

Software Components of Data
Communications
The first two are system software and the third is
application software.
Examples of application software for communications: e-
mail, FTP, Web browser, newsgroup/message boards, chat
rooms, instant messaging, video conferencing, and
Internet telephony.

Direction of Data Transmission
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of

transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also
called Communication Mode or Data
Transmission Mode. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information. There are three
types of transmission modes. They are Simple
Mode, Half Duplex mode and Full – Duplex
Mode. BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei
Simplex Mode
• In simplex mode, among the two devices which are communicating
with each other, one device can only be a sender and the other can
only be a receiver. Thus, the sender device will not receive data
but will transmit data, and the receiver device will only receive
data but will not transmit or send any data. This transmission is
unidirectional.
• Examples: loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and
remote, Keyboards and monitors or displays, traditional FM radios
etc. (Getting print outs, watching television, and listening to
radio). Traditional FM radios only output broadcasted or
transmitted audio from stations, but does not communicate back.
•Advantage: The sender can use the full
capacity of the medium to transmit data, so
more data is transmitted at a time.
•Disadvantage: One-way connection, so no
inter-communication between devices.
Half duplex
• In half-duplex, both devices which are communicating with each

other can send and receive data, but not at the same time, that is,
when one device is sending data then another device can only receive
that data but can’t send data back. Half-duplex data transmission
means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal
carrier, but not at the same time. This is like a narrow bridge where
vehicles from both end of the bridge can cross the bridge but not at
the same time.
• Examples: Browsing internet to get information and walkie-talkie
used by security forces can be given as examples etc.
• Advantage: In half-duplex, both devices can send
and receive data and also entire capacity of the
transmission medium is used when transmitting
data.
• Disadvantage: As when one device is sending data
then another one must wait, this can cause delay in
sending the data at the right time.
Full duplex
• In full-duplex or duplex mode, both devices can send and

receive data at the same time. In full duplex system we
can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional
at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously. In this transmission mode, data
going in a direction will share the capacity of the
transmission medium with the data going in another
direction. This sharing can be obtained by two ways, such
as, by sharing the capacity of the medium, or having two
physically separated transmission paths.
• Examples: telephone, cell phone networks etc. in
which there is communication between two persons
using telephone line, which both can talk and listen
at the same time.
• Advantages: Both parties can talk and listen to each
other at the same time.
• Disadvantages: If there is no dedicated path in the
network then the capacity will be divided into two.
Forms of Data Transmission Signals
• Analog: The signal is continuously variable in amplitude

and frequency. Power requirement is high when compared
with Digital Transmission.
• Digital: It is a sequence of voltage pulses. It is basically a
series of discrete pulses. Security is better than Analog
Transmission.

Data Transmission Security and Control
• Computer security is a process of preventing and protecting

unauthorized use of your computer. There is the need for
confidentiality and authentication of messages that are sent
over a network of which the Internet does not provide. There is
the need to make use of public and private keys to encrypt and
sign messages.
Description of different threats faced by networked systems
and protection against them will be discussed under this
section.
• Data security measures are needed to protect data during
transmission.
Threats to Data Security
• Viruses - A program which enters into the system, runs and
performs malicious activities unknowingly.
• Trojans - Any malicious computer program used to invade
into a computer by misleading users.
• Malware- The software that is written for malicious
purposes.
• Phishing – An attempt to obtain sensitive information such
as usernames, passwords, and credit card details by
pretending as a trustworthy person.
• The term hacker, although originally a complimentary
word for a computer enthusiast, now has a derogatory
meaning and refers to someone who accesses a computer
or network illegally. Hackers often claim the intent of
their security breaches is to improve security
• Network security failures: Security measures need to be
high on the agenda for any company that uses and relies
on networking technology. Such network security failures
may lead to Cyber-attacks
• Cyber-attacks and cyber terrorism are ways of attacking
companies and organisations online. There are frequent cyber-
attacks on the government and businesses all across the world.
• Hacking: Hackers attempt to break into networks to steal
private information. In 2011, Sony’s PlayStation Network was
hacked and security details for thousands of users were
released. The term hacker, although originally a complimentary
word for a computer enthusiast, now has a derogatory meaning
and refers to someone who accesses a computer or network
illegally. Hackers often claim the intent of their security
breaches in other to improve security.
• IT security specialists are employed by companies to hack their
own networks and find security faults or weaknesses. These
‘white hat hackers’ (as they are sometimes called) must be
experts in their field and have knowledge of the latest
techniques being used by illegal hackers. By attempting to hack
into a network, they can spot security flaws and offer advice on
how to fix them.
• A cracker also is someone who accesses a computer or network
illegally but has the intent of destroying data, stealing
information, or other malicious action. Both hackers and
crackers have advanced computer and network skills.
Protection against unauthorized malicious
accesses.
• Anyone sharing personal information, e.g. bank details,

wants to be sure that they are safe and secure. Most
businesses and organisations employ network managers
or administrators to manage the security of their networks.
• Secure transmission refers to the transfer of data such as
confidential or proprietary information over a secure
channel. Information on a network must be guarded
carefully. There are many potential threats to a network
and various ways to protect them.
Security measures include: Passwords, Encryption,
Firewall, Antivirus, Education/ better awareness/
good practices and Physical methods. Networks
create security risks. They require measures such as
protection passwords and anti-virus software. Network
managers use policies to protect users on a network.

• Firewall: Firewall is a network security. Instructions to control the
data and instruction transmission between internet and computer
network are built into the system. A firewall operates as a secured
barrier between internet and network in exchanging data among
computers. This device constantly looks at all the data entering
and exiting your connection. It can block or reject data in
response to an established rule.
• A firewall is software that will block unexpected connections
coming in to the network. Most operating systems include a
firewall. Firewalls can be purchased in both forms as software and
hardware.
• A firewall is hardware and/or software that
protects a network’s resources from intrusion. A
firewall is a system that act against unauthorized
accesses to protected data. A (personal) firewall
detects and protects a personal computer from
unauthorized intrusions.
• A Firewall is a hardware/software that permits only
authorised data to enter/leave the network.
• Password: A password is a private combination of
characters associated with the user name that allows
access to certain computer resources. When more than one
person uses a network, it is important to have user IDs and
passwords. Only someone with a login and password can
access that network. It also helps the network manager
trace unusual activity to a specific user.
• A weak password makes it easy for someone to try to guess
your login details. A good password will have a mix of
uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers and special
characters.
All users must be issued with a secured password. It
could:
• Be like your toothbrush – don’t let anyone else use it
and change it regularly.
• Don’t pick words that others could easily guess.
• No dictionary words
• Between 6 – 10 characters
Access levels:
In a large company or school, many people will be using

computers on the same network. A network manager will
normally control the level of access people have to the
network. General users will not have the ability
to download any software they want or to make changes to
any part of the system, as that could affect other users. The
more people have access to sensitive parts of the network,
the more likely it is that a hacker or a virus might be able to
cause damage. You can set user access levels on your home
computer. For example, a parent may prevent a child from
being able to install software.
Data encryption:
Any message sent over a network can be

intercepted. Encryption is a method of changing the original
numbers and characters so that they are hidden or disguised. This
is important if you are sending sensitive information. Encryption
is the process of converting readable data into unreadable
characters to prevent unauthorized access. You treat
encrypted data just like any other data. That is, you can store it
or send it in an e-mail message. To read the data, the recipient
must decrypt, or decipher, it into a readable form. Putting data
into code so it can’t be understood by others. Encryption is a
technique used in cryptography which provides confidentiality of
transmitting data.
• There are two types of encryption:
• Symmetric Key Encryption - The encryption process where same
keys are used for encrypting and decrypting the information is
known as Symmetric Key Encryption. When using symmetric key
encryption users must share a common key prior to exchange of
information.
• Asymmetric Key Encryption - The encryption process where
different keys are used for encrypting and decrypting the
information is known as Asymmetric Key Encryption. Every user in
this system needs to have a pair of dissimilar keys, private key
and public key
These keys are mathematically related − when one
key is used for encryption, the other can decrypt
the cipher text back to the original plaintext. It is
used to protect email or files sent over a network.
The prefix for some web addresses is https instead
of http. The ‘s’ indicates that it is a secure website
and any payment or personal details that are
inputted into the site will be encrypted.
Antivirus software:
There are a number of malicious software (‘malware’) programs that

can cause damage to computers. These include viruses, worms,
zombies, Trojan horses (Trojans) and Spybots. Anti-virus software is
designed to detect and block attacks from malware. Some operating
systems have their own inbuilt anti-virus software. In a large
organisation, a network manager should make sure that all the
computers under their control are secure and the anti-virus software
is up to date. Antivirus software is a software that detect and
quarantine the malicious software that tries to harm a computer.
Computer users:
Users of computers must be properly educated to

protect the network devices against malicious attacks
and unauthorized accesses. Passwords must be chosen
with utmost care and antivirus software must be
periodically updated to protect the system from
attacks.

Physical Methods
✓Preventing unauthorised users getting access to the
system.
✓Locking of rooms.
✓Locking Hard Drives.
✓Locking disks away Biometrics.
✓Fingerprint scanning.
✓Iris Scanning.
✓Voice Print
✓Error code
✓Destination code
• Backup: A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if
the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed.
• To back up a file means to make a copy of it
• Offsite backups are stored in a location separate from the computer site
• A backup utility allows users to copy files to another storage medium
• One reason for different storage locations or backup is to keeps a backup so
that it can easily recover/restore lost or damaged documents in case of any
disaster in the original one.
• A restore utility reverses the process and returns backed up files to their
original form.
Ethical and legal issues
• Cyber Law is the law that deals with offences

related to data /information stored on computers
or networked devices/solutions.

• How do Computer networks reduce hardware costs of an
organization? Explain with the help of example.
• Why is a switch called an intelligent hub?
• When is a repeater used in a computer network?
• How is it easier to diagnose fault in Star topology than in
Bus topology?

• Explain the terms Firewall and Cyber Law.
• a. Explain the term bandwidth
• b. State two uses of a USB internet modem.
• c. State three examples of computer network
protocols. (WASSCE PC 2016)

• State two (2) disadvantages of each of the following
network media:
• Twisted pair
• Fibre optic
• Wireless (unguided media) (WASSCE PC 2014)

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BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

•Network Concepts Configuration

❑BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) - Peprah Adusei

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

Call: 0249455604 / 0208434750

• Computer communications describes a process in which

(terrestrial or satellite microwave), telephone wires or wireless.

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Networks usually are classified as a local area network,

• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication

• More cable required for a MAN connection from

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a

• It generally covers large distances (states,

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on

• Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and

Inter Network or Internet is a combination

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

A hub is a small rectangular box, often made of

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently.

• The main difference is the data transmission speed.

A router is the smartest and most complicated

•They connect multiple networks.

A repeater connects two segments of your

• They boost up signals to their original strength

A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

•They connect networks

A gateway is a router equipped with all the

When we use the word topology in this

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

The physical topology is the layout/arrangement of

Commonly used physical topologies are

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Fast performance with few nodes and low network

•It transmits data only in one direction.

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

•Cables fails then whole network fails.

Why is it is easier to diagnose

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

N.B: It is easier to diagnose fault in Star topology than in

• On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Transmitting network is not affected by high

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more of the

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

•It is a combination of two or topologies

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei

• Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting

BITS & BYTES (Elective ICT) Peprah Adusei