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LINTASAN
BY. SUTOPO FISIKA UNSRI
KULIAH 3
 THE SEISMIC METHOD
Energy An Explosion!
Source .4 s Listening Devices
.8 s .1
.2
0
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
0 sss

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

 RAW SEISMIC DATA
Device Device
#1 #2 For the explosion we just considered ...
Time

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 Listening device #1 records a reflection
0.5 starting at 0.4 seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8 Listening device #2 records a reflection
starting at 0.8 seconds
RAW DATA - MARINE
SHOT GATHER For Shot 1
Source Receivers
Direct Arrival Offset (Distance)
S1
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

1
Direct Arrival

2 Way Travel Time

2
Reflections
3

For each shot, reflections are

recorded in 5 receivers Reflection

There are 5 ‘bounce’ points

along interface 3
 SEISMOGRAM

Accoustic Refflectionc
Geological Reflectivity Input seismic
impedance coefficient
section coefficient pulse trace
log log

From a geological subsoil to a seismic trace.

 Sampling
By measurements using a digital system, the data is not continuously measured,
but at a specific time interval measured and transported to the AD-converter.

Analogue representation of a Digital representation of a

sinusoidal function sinusoidal function
 Aliasing

Sampling frequency is the number of sampling points in unit time or unit distance.
Thus if a waveform is sampled every two miliseconds (sampling interval:Δt=0.002),
the sampling frequency is 500 samples per second (or 500 Hz). Sampling at this rate
will preserve all frequencies up to 250 Hz in the sampled function. This frequency of
half the sampling frequency is known as the Nyquist frequency (fN) and the Nyquist
interval is the frequency range from zero up to fN.
fN=1/2Δt

No information is lost as long as the frequency of sampling is at least twice as high

as the highest frequency component in the sampled data.
 Phenomena Causing The Degradation
of A Seismic Wave

 Divergence
 Absorption
 Scattering of Energy at an interface
 (Reflection, Refraction, Conversion)
 Interference with other waves (e.g. multiple reflections)
 Spreading of Energy
 Influence of measurement system
 These are wave equations; compare to the general form of equation
describing wave processes:

 1 2 2
 c 2 t 2    f ( x, y , z , t )  0
 
 Compression (P) wave velocity: 4
K 
  2 3
vp  
  
 Shear (S) wave velocity: vs 

 Note that the VP/VS depends on the Poisson ratio alone:

Vp  1/ 2  
 
Vs   2 1
  Depend on
 Matrix and structure of the stone

 Lithology

SEISMIC VELOCITY  Porosity

 Porefilling interstitial fluid

 Temperature

 Degree of compaction

 Laboratory measurements using probes

MEASUREMENTS  Borehole measurements
OF VELOCITIES  Refraction seismic
 Analysis of reflection hyperbolas
 Vertical seismic profiling
 TYPICAL VELOCITIES
IN UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS
Velocity in km/sec
Unconsolidate Sediments Remarks
Vp Vs

alluvium 0.5 - 2.0 -- Near surface

clay 3.0-3.5 -- depth 2 Km

Loam 1.1-2.5 --

Loess 0.8-1.8 --

Sand 0.3-0.6 0.4-0.5

Weathered layer 1.0-1.8 --

Glacial till 0.3-0.9 -- Unsaturated

1.73 -- Water saturated

Sand and gravel 0.38-0.50 -- Unsaturated

1.67 -- water saturated

Ocean bottom 1.46-1.68 --

 TYPICAL VELOCITIES
IN CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS
Velocity in km/sec
Consolidate sediments Remarks
Vp Vs
Sandstone 1.4 - 4.3 --
Australia
Sandstone Conglomerate 2.4 --

Limestone 3.4 – 6.1 -- U.S Mid-continent and Gulf Texas

Argillaceous
6.03 3.03 Texas
Limestone
Dolomitic Limestone 5.97 -- Pennsylvania
Crystalline limestone 5.67 – 6.40 -- Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma
Salt 4.4 – 6.5 -- Unsaturated
Cap Rock 3.5 – 5.5 -- Salt, anhydrite, gypsum, limestone
Anhydrite 5.0 -- USSR
Gypsum 2.0 – 3.5 -- US and Germany
Chalk 2.1 – 4.2 --
 Typical Velocities
in Metamorphic
Metamorphic and
and Igneous Rocks
Velocity in km/sec
Remarks
Igneous Rocks Vp Vs
Slate 4.27 2.86 Massachusetts
Marble 3.75 – 6.94 2.02 – 3.86 Japan, Korea, Italy
Quartzite 6.1 -- West Virginia
Chlorite Schist 4.89 3.27 Massachusetts
Gneiss 6.71 -- Wisconsin
5.15 – 7.50 -- Spain
Volcanic Tuff 2.16 0.83 New Zaeland
Granite 5.76 3.23 Westerly, R.I
5.64 2.87 Ontario
5.12 3.03 Japan
Quartz Monzonite 5.26 2.89 Westerly, R.I
Granodiorite 4.88 3.16 California
Diorite 5.78 3.06 Massachusetts
Andesite 5.23 2.73 Colorado
 Typical Velocities
in Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks

Metamorphic and Velocity in km/sec

Remarks
Igneous Rocks
Vp Vs
Gabbro 6.69 3.47 California

Diabase 5.8 – 6.6 2.02 – 3.86 E. Siberia

Basalt 5.06 -- Germany

Norite 6.22 3.27 Ontario

Dunite 8.60 -- Washington

 SEISMIC SOURCE
 Localized region within which a sudden increase in elastic energy leads to
rapid stressing of the surrounding medium.
 Most seismic sources preferentially generate P-waves
 Easier to generate (pressure pulse);
 Easier to record and process (earlier, more impulsive arrivals)
 Requirements
 Broadest possible frequency spectrum;
 Sufficient energy;
 Repeatability;
 Safety - environmental and personnel;
 Minimal cost;
 Minimal coherent (source-induced) noise
 Problem:
 In general: The more energy is emitted the lower the frequency content. So
a good compromise between penetration and resolution must be found.
 SEISMIC/ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM

echo sounder
pinger
boomers
sparkers
air guns
vibroseis
quarry blasts
earthquake body waves
earthquake surface waves

10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105

 LAND SOURCE

 Explosives – chemical base

 Steep pressure pulse.

 Shotguns, rifles, blasting caps;

 …bombs, nuclear blasts…

 Surface (mechanical)
 Weight drop, hammer;

 Piezoelectric borehole sources (ultrasound );

 Continuous signal
 Vibroseis (continuously varying frequency, 10-300 Hz)

 Mini-Sosie (multiple impact);

 Combination with Vibroseis (Swept Impact Seismic Technique, SIST)

 Drill bit ('Seismic While Drilling’);

 sparkers, ...truck spark plugs.

 DYNAMITE (EXPLOSIVE IMPULSIVE
SOURCE):
 Has good, clean impulsive source
 Requires drilling holes of 10-20 feet (membuhkan lubang kedalaman 10-20 feet)
 Gelatin dynamite, ammonium nitrate, pentolite (SEIS-X).
 Packaged in tins, cardboard or plastic tubes ~5 cm in diameter (0.5-5 kg each).
 40% of the seismic measurements
 Not really repeatable (tidak bisa diulang)
 Exact time of detonation is difficult to obtain (Waktu ledakan yang tepat sulit
diperoleh)
 Detonators are sometimes used for shallow applications (Detonator terkadang
digunakan untuk aplikasi dangkal)
 High energy
 For each application the amount of dynamite can be adjusted (Untuk setiap
penggunaan jumlah dinamit dapat disesuaikan
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION
OF EXPLOSIVES
 Density

 Higher density means the explosive column length is shortened, resulting in an

energy pulse of higher frequency. Higher frequency means better data quality.
Typical values are 1.2-1.8 g/cc.

 Velocity
 Higher velocity means a higher frequency energy pulse will be generated because
the explosive column detonates more quickly. Typical values are 6-8 km/sec.
 Ground velocities < 5 cm/s are considered safe for structures;

 Detonation pressure
 Detonation pressure is an indication of energy released by the detonation. High
detonation pressure is beneficial in seismic blasting. Typical range - 2-4 GPa (70-
250 kBar).

 Self-disarming
 Unexploded charges left in the ground could be hazardous to future drilling or
excavation. Seismic explosives that self-disarm are the best choice.
 Vibroseis
Used in > ½ of land seismic exploration

 Vibroseis
 Energy introduced into the Earth in the form of a sweep of varying frequency
for several seconds
 Typical sweep time - 7-35 s;

 ~45 minutes in recent mantle investigations

 Typical frequencies - 12 -> 60 Hz (upsweep) or 60 ->12 Hz (downsweep);

 Low energy density - environmentally friendly;

 Time-Distributed signal - lower noise requirements.

 A control signal causes a vibrator to exert variable pressure on a steel

plate pressed against the Earth.
 Radio-controlled hydraulics allows syn-phase vibration of a group of vibrators;
 Shear-wave vibrators also shake the ground in horizontal directions
CDP, CMP and Zero-Offset, Common Offset
There are different possibilities to sort the data:
 Common shot - all traces, that belong to the same shot
 Common midpoint (CMP) - all traces with the same midpoint
 Common receiver - all traces, recorded with the same geophone
 Common offset - all traces with the same offset between shot and geophone

Difference between CMP and CDP: For a horizontal Reflector all traces that have the same midpoint, have also the
same reflectionpoint in the subsurface. Is the layer inclined than the traces have a different reflection point.
 Zero Offset

 Zero offset data is characterized when the source and

receiver are present on the same location.

 There is no moveout. For a normal measurement this is

seldom the case. When the traces are corrected for the
moveout and are stacked then a zero offset trace is obtained.
 Common Offset

All traces with equal offset between source and receiver. This
configuration is often used for several Single channel systems.
Also Georadar measurements are often carried out with a fixed
offset between source and receiver.
 Fold

 The fold indicates the number of traces per CDP. This is often the
number of traces in a CMP. The theoretical formula for the fold is
given by:

Fold =
(Number of Geophones . Distance between Geophones)/2.Distance between shots

 The number of traces which are measured at a certain geophone

position is called “surface fold”
 Seismic Spreads

 Single-sided spread
 Pushing, geophones
ahead of shot
 Pulling, geophones
behind shot

 Split-spread
Seismic Spreads
 The Common Midpoint Sort

The common midpoint sort coverts shot gathers to common

midpoint gathers
 Shot gathers have all stations recording a single shot; this
is the way the data is recorded.
 Common midpoint gathers have all the shot-receiver
paths with the same midpoint; this is the processing
geometry.
Shot Gathers and Midpoints
CMP Gathers Now
Shot Gathers, Skipped Shots
Effect of Shot Skips on Final
Stack
Shot Geometry Variables
Shot Geometry
Split-Spread Source Geometry

Raw field records from a land survey. Note the rapid decay in amplitude at late times
 Shot Gathers

The beginning of the line is called the roll-in, the end is the roll-out
Stacking Diagram
Shot into 6 stations to give 3 fold data
Stacking Diagram

A hypothetical stacking chart. Each dot

represent a single trace with the time axis
perpendicular to the plane of the page. Shot
geophone (s,g), and mid point-offset (y,h)
coordinates are superimposed with the (y,h)
plane rotated 45 degrees with respect to the
(s,g) plane. Here, (1) is common-shot gather,
(2) is common-receiver gather, (3) is CMP
gather, (4) is a common-offset section, and
(5) is a CMP stacked section.
Stacking Diagram
 Seismogram
Accoustic Refflectionc
Geological Reflectivity Input seismic
impedance coefficient
section coefficient pulse trace
log log

From a geological subsoil to a seismic trace.

Waves

1 2
period   
f 
2
wavenumber k 

velocity v  . f
Important Wave Forms
 Minimum Phase and Zero-Phase
Wavelet

Energy is maximally front-loaded Symmetric with respect to zero time

(Energy does not arrive before zero time) and peaks at zero time
(Energy arrives also before zero time)
 Waveform

The most important waveforms in seismic are shown in the figure below
and are the
 Minimum-Phase wavelet
 zero phase wavelet

The most important waveforms in seismic:

(a) Minimum-Wavelet and

(b) Zero-Phase Wavelet.
Both waveforms are shown with normal and
reverse polarity.
 Representation
The travel time is in general shown with increasing time along the vertical Increasing downwards
(larger travel time corresponds to a larger depth). There are several ways to represent seismic
traces. The sort of representation depend on the processing used, but also on the number of traces.

Wiggle Variable Variable Variable

Reflectivity
only area density area+wiggle
series

Different representations of a seismic trace.

Various Ways to Display
Seismograms:

Wiggle trace/ Variable trace Wiggle trace

Variable trace
Representations of a Seismic
Trace.
 Wiggle
 For the simplest representation the amplitude is depicted as a curve (Wiggle).

 Variable area + wiggle

 When there are more traces then the result is disordered. The right half of the trace
is drawn black. Standard (set by SEG) is: the positive half of the wave on the right
site is colored black. This is in seismics the most used representation.

 Variable area
 When a lot of traces are depicted close to each other, then most of the time only the
positive half of the traces is plotted. (e.g. for smaller version of seismic sections.).
To suppress noise one often plot only a part of the half of the wave (Variable
Amplitude).

 Variable density
 For the interpretation the amplitudes are often plotted in different grayscales or
colours (“variable density”). This is standard for Georadar or seismic Interpretation.
In this way the differences in amplitudes are more clear.
Events in a Seismic Trace

 The important elements are

 Reflections
 Refractions
 Interface waves
 Multiples
 Noise
Reflections, Refractions and interface
waves are already discussed
 Noise

The S/N ratio “Signal-to-noise ratio” gives the ratio between

the amplitude of a signal (e.g. reflections) to background
noise (“random noise”) or noise sources (“coherent noise”).

One aim of the data processing is to increase the S/N ratio.

 Coherent Noise
 Sided-scattered noise
From irregularities or the point scatters

 Multiples (repeated pattern)

Ghost, Simple multiple, Water-bottom multiple, Peg-leg multiple, Inter-bed multiple

 Vibration noise

 Interface wave

 Ground roll (Rayleigh surface waves on land survey)

Low frequency
Strong amplitude
Low group velocity

 Guided waves (refractions and head waves on shallow marine survey)

Strong velocity contrast with the substratum
Early arrivals
 Multiples
 Long-path multiples
 (occur when exceptionally large reflection coefficients are present):
-> Ghost reflections, where rays from a buried explosion on land (or an air
gun in water) are reflected back from the ground surface (or sea surface) to
produce a reflection event, known as a ghost reflection, that arrives a short
time after the primary.
-> Water layer reverberations, where rays from a marine source are
repeatedly reflected at the sea bed and sea surface

 Short-part multiples (“peg-leg multiple”):

 Involve only a short additional path length to arrive so soon after the
primary event that they extend the overall length of the pulse. (Multiples
between two interfaces of a layer)
 Random Noise
 Instrument noise

 Machinery

 Power line

 Cable noise
A, B, C, D are guided waves
trapped (refracted waves) at the sea
floor. They have a dispersive
character with low frequencies C
arriving first, higher frequencies B
arriving next, and moderate
frequencies D arriving last
A = weak reflectors
B = strong reflectors
C suggests a fault in spread
D = ground roll

Deep water shot record

• A is direct arrival
• B is water-bottom reflection
• C is shallow reflection
• M is 1rst water-bottom multiple, note double
time of B
• PL is water-bottom and peg-leg multiples of C
 Resolution
Resolution refers to the minimum separation between two features such that
we can tell that there are two features rather than only one.

Comparison between the wavelength of a 30-Hz Signal, Big Ben and a Log of a drilling.
 Vertical Resolution
Vertical resolution means: How thick must a layer be, to discern the top
and bottom of the specific layer. Theoretically, a layer can be
distinguished when it has a thickness of ¼ wavelength (Rayleigh-Criterium).
Resolution of Two Boundaries Depends on Wavelength

Decreasing image separation

 Lateral Resolution

The lateral resolution depends on the distance between the source and receiver at
the surface and the depth of the layer. Energy that is returned to a detector within
half a wavelength of the initial reflected arrival interferes constructively to build
up the reflected signal, and the part of the interface from which this energy is
returned is known as the first Fresnel zone, or, simply, Fresnel zone.

The width of the Fresnel zone represents an absolute limit on the horizontal
resolution of a reflection survey since reflections separated by a distance smaller
than this cannot be individually distinguished. The width w of the Fresnel zone is
related to the dominant wavelength λ of the source and the reflector depth z by

w= 2zλ
for z>> λ.
Horizontal Resolution
Fresnel Zone Examples

r2 ~ h/2
Reflector Velocity Frequency Zone Diameter
Depth
1000 m 2000 m/s 60 Hz 260 m

30 Hz 370 m

4000 m 3500 m/s 50 Hz 750 m

20 Hz 1200 m
 Sampling Theorem

 At least two samples per (horizontal) apparent wavelength

must be obtained in order to recognize Features (remember the
time sampling theorem!!).

 For example, to recognize a stream channel on a horizontal

slice generally requires bin sizes no larger than 1/3 or ¼ the
channel width.
 NEXT ►
MARINE SEISMIC
MARINE SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION
 Air Gun

 High pressure bubble of air is

released into the water
 Operating pressure 10-15 MPa, in
1-4 ms;
 Size (volume of the lower
chamber) 10-2000 in3 (0.16-33
liters)
 Primary pulse is followed by a
surface ghost and a train of bubble
pulses
 Environmental issues with fish
and whales
 Can be used in source arrays to
increase energy

Airgun Source Signature
Bubble Pulse
Airgun Array
 Airgun Array Tuning
 Use multiple airguns with different bubble pulse signatures
 Airgun Array Tuning
 Resultant signature sums initial pulse, damps bubble pulses
Suppression of Bubble pulses

 Bubble pulses can be suppressed in two

ways:
 Use array of air guns with different
dimensions;
 Shallow firing (~2 m) - bubble vents to
the surface.
 During digital processing, the wavelet is
further compressed by Using
deconvolution.
Acquisition Technique
Travel-Time Curves on the Marine Acquisition
x

Direct wave

Reflection

Diffraction

t
 RECEIVER
Hydrophone is the standard receiver in Marine seismic and responds to variations in
pressure. It exist of a piezoelectric ceramic disc. A pressure wave effectively bends the
piezoelectric discs, thus generating a voltage (see picture). This voltage is proportional to the
variation of the pressure. Also the hydrophones are used in groups just like the geophones.

Principle of the measurement of the change in pressure with a piezoelectric cristal (Hydrophone).
Due to the bending of the material a voltage occurs.
Hydrophones
 Streamer
Several channels are used in Marine reflection seismic. Several hydrophones
are fixed at a specific distance in a streamer. Close to the hydrophones a
pressure sensor is present, which measure float depth, and if the streamer
deviates from the required level the fin angles are adjusted to compensate.
Streamers are in general filled with a special oil, to adapt to the density of the
water. Just like the measurements on land, several streamers with different
lengths and different canals are used. From 48 canals with a length of 100 m
till 240 canals and a length of 12 km.
 Marine Streamer
 The active portion of a marine streamer consists of hydrophones with
piezo-electric (pressure sensitive) crystals.

 A piezo-electric crystal generate electrical currents in response to pressure

changes caused by explosive detonations in the water.

 As the hydrophone case is deformed by changing water pressure, the

interior mounting is also deformed in a way that changes the stress on the
crystal, causing the crystal to generate electric signals.
 Marine Streamers
 ~6 km length
 Groups of hydrophones every 25
meters

“birds” receivers
Streamer Photos
 Bird
 Mounted externally on a marine seismic streamer cable
 Depth measurement
 Depth control

Attaching a “bird”
 Sonobuoy
 A sonobuoy is a device generally used to detect and identify moving underwater
objects.
 Sonobuoys are classified by size and type (active or passive).
 Passive buoys use hydrophones to convert underwater sound waves into electric
signals, which are amplified and frequency modulated for VHF transimission.
 Most sonobuoys automatically scuttle within 8 hours of deployment.
Tail Buoy