PSY 011

INTRODUCTION TO
I/0 PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1

Prepared by: Ms. Nicole A. Aring, RPm

BRIEF HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY
HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY
Early Years 1900 - 1961

In its beginnings, what we know today as I /O psychology didn’t even have

a name; it was a merging of two forces that gathered momentum before
1900.

The Desire of
pragmatic industrial
nature of engineers to
some basic improve
psychological efficiency.
research.
HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY
19th century American society was undergoing rapid changes and
developments because of industrialization, immigration, a high birthrate,
education, and urban growth.

These societal demands forced psychologists to popularize their science

and demonstrate the value of psychology in solving problems and helping
society

By 1910 “industrial psychology” (the “organizational” appendage did not

become official until 1970) was a legitimate specialty area of psychology.
(Economic Psychology, Business Psychology, Employment Psychology)
FOUNDING FIGURES OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY
WALTER DILL SCOTT
Persuaded to give a talk to some
Chicago business leaders on the
need for applying psychology to
advertising.

The Theory of Advertising (1903)

The Psychology of Advertising

(1908).

Influencing Men in Business

Increasing Human Efficiency in

Business.
WALTER DILL SCOTT

During World War I, Scott was

instrumental in the application of
personnelprocedures in the army.

Scott had a substantial influence on

increasing public awareness and
thecredibility of industrial
psychology.
FREDERICK TAYLOR engineer by profession.

value of redesigning the work situation

to achieve both higher output for the
company and a higher wage for the
worker.

The Principles of Scientific

Management (1911)

Training employees when to work and

when to rest increased average
worker productivity and wage
FREDERICK TAYLOR

His methods were eventually

investigated by the Interstate
Commerce Commission (ICC) and
the U.S. House of Representatives.

World War I broke out and the

controversy faded.
 LILLIAN AND FRANK GILBRETH
The first, if not the first scientist to
improve productivity and reduce
fatigue by studying the motions used
by workers

Frank Gilbreth was more concerned

with the technical aspects of worker
efficiency

while she was more concerned with the

human aspects of time management
Psychology Applied to Work (Muchinsky, 2006)
HUGO MUNSTERBERG
German psychologist with traditional
academic training

He applied his experimental methods

to a variety of problems, including
perception and attention.

One of Münsterberg’s most renowned

studies involved determining what
makes a safe trolley car operator.
GEORGE ELTON MAYO
Advocate of "Human Relation
Movement"

Hawthorne studies were published

(1930s)

Conducted at the Hawthorned plant of

the Western Electric Company in
Chicago area

Hawthorne effect
INDUSTRIAL - ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
A branch of psychology that applies the principles of
psychology to the workplace.

The purpose of I/O psychology is “to enhance the dignity

and performance of human beings, and the
organizations they work in, by advancing the science
and knowledge of human behavior”
INDUSTRIAL - ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Relies extensively on research, quantitative methods, and

test-ing techniques.
2. Trained to use empirical data and statistics rather than
intuition to make decisions.
3. NOT clinical psychologists who happen to be in industry,
and they do not conduct therapy for workers.
INDUSTRIAL APPROACH ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH

Focuses on determining the Creates an organizational structure and

competencies needed to perform a culture that will motivate employees to
job, staffing the organization with perform well, give them the necessary
employees who have those information to do their jobs, and provide
competencies, and increasing those working conditions that are safe and
competencies through training. result in an enjoyable and satisfying
work/life environment.
VS.
Organization Employee

KSAOs Performance appraisal

Recruitment Environment

Employee selection Safe working conditions

Employee Training Employee Satisfaction

MAJOR FIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The field of study that concentrates The field of study that investigates
on the selection and evaluation of the behavior of employees within
employees the context of an organization.

Analyzing jobs Leadership

Recruiting applicants job satisfaction
Selecting employees employee motivation
Determining salary levels organizational communication,
Training employees conflict management
Evaluating employee organizational change
performance group processes within an
organization
MAJOR FIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

HUMAN FACTORS/ERGONOMICS
The field of study that concentrates on the selection and
evaluation of employees

Workplace Design
Human Machine Interaction
Ergonomics
Fatigue and stress
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Process of acquiring, Refers to an assortment of

training, appraising, and
compensating employees,
and of attending to their
labor relations, health anf
safety, and fairness
concerns
training programs that help
people to adjust to their new
VS. roles and learn more about
the organization and its
culture.
Training and development
ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN HR DEVELOPMENT

Training and Development (T&D)

Heart of continuous effort designed to improve employee competency
and organizational performance

Training
Provides learners with knowledge and skills needed for their present job

Development
Involves learning that goes beyond today's job and has a more long-term
focus
HUMAN RESOURCE VS.
ORGANIZATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN RESOURCE VS. EMPLOYEE TRAINING
DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY

FIELD RESEARCH VS. LABORATORY RESEARCH

INTERNAL VALIDITY X EXTERNAL VALIDITY

ETHICS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY
 PSY 011

LEGAL ISSUES
IN
EMPLOYEE SELECTION

Prepared by: Ms. Nicole A. Aring, RPm

 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONCERN
(Philippine Labor Code)

Paper and Drug Test Work Leave

pencil test

Medical Benefits
Examination
 EMPLOYEE BENEFITS (REPUBLIC ACT)
R.A 1161 - SSS Benefits
R.A 7875 - Philihealth Benefits
RA 9679 - Pag-ibig

WORK LEAVES (REPUBLIC ACT)

R.A 8187 - Paternity Leave Act of 1996
R.A 8282 - Maternity Leave Benefit
R.A 11210 - Expanded Maternity Leave
R.A 9262 - Violence Against Women and their Children
 TYPES OF HARASSMENT

Quid pro Hostile

Environment
qou

Age Gender PWD

 RESOLVING COMPLAINT INTERNALLY

Grievance Arbitration Nonbinding

Arbitration
System

Mediation Binding
Arbitration
 RESOLVING COMPLAINT INTERNALLY

A process in which an employee files a complaint

with the organization and a person or committee
Grievance
System within the organization makes a decision
regarding the complaint.
 GRIEVANCE SYSTEM

EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
COMMITTEE
1 2

DECISION
 RESOLVING COMPLAINT INTERNALLY

A method of resolving conflict in which a neutral

third party is asked to help the two parties reach
Mediation
an agreement.
 MEDIATION

EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
NEUTRAL
1 2

AGREEMENT
 RESOLVING COMPLAINT INTERNALLY

A method of resolving conflicts in which a neutral

third party is asked to choose which side is
Arbitration
correct.
 ARBITRATION

EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
NEUTRAL
1 2

EMPLOYEE 1 IS CORRECT
 BINDING ARBITRATION

EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
NEUTRAL
1 2

EMPLOYEE 1 IS CORRECT
 NONBINDING ARBITRATION

EMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE
NEUTRAL
1 2

EMPLOYEE 1 IS CORRECT
JOB ANALYSIS AND
EVALUATION
 WHAT IS JOB Writing Job Descriptions
ANALYSIS? Employee Selection
Training
Gathering, analyzing, and Personpower Planning
structuring about a job's Performance Appraisal
component, characteristics, and Job Classification
requirements Job Evaluation
Job Design
Compliance with Legal Guidance
Foundation for almost all human
Organizational Analysis
resources activities.
 1. WRITING JOB DESCRIPTIONS
One of the written products of a job analysis is a job description a brief, two-
to five page summary of the tasks and job requirements found in the job
analysis.

Job analyses and job descriptions serve as the basis for many HR activities,
including employee selection, evaluation, training, and work design.
 2. EMPLOYEE SELECTION
Identifying such requirements, it is possible to select tests or
develop interview questions that will determine whether a
particular applicant possesses the necessary knowledge,
skills, and abilities to carry out the requirements of the job.
 3. TRAINING
It is difficult to see how employees can be trained unless the
requirements of the job are known.

Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be

systematically used to create training programs.
 4. PERSONPOWER PLANNING
One important but seldom employed use of job analysis is to
determine worker mobility within an organization.

If individuals are hired for a particular job, to what other jobs

can they expect to eventually be promoted and become
successful
 4. PERSONPOWER PLANNING
PETER PRINCIPLE

The idea that organizations tend to promote good employees

until they reach the level at which they are not competent
 5. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
The evaluation of employee performance must be job related

Employees are often evaluated with forms that use such vague categories as
“dependability,” “knowledge,” and “initiative.”

When properly administered and utilized, job-related performance appraisals

can serve as an excellent source of employee training and counseling.
 6. JOB CLASSIFICATION
Job analysis enables a human resources professional to classify
jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and
duties.

Job classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers,

and promotions.
 7. JOB EVALUATION
Job analysis information can also be used to determine the
worth of a job.

Internal and External pay equity

 DETERMINING INTERNAL PAY EQUITY
Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors

Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor

Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights

 DETERMINING EXTERNAL PAY EQUITY
Salary surveys - A questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much
they are paying their employees in positions similar to those in the organization
sending the survey.

Direct compensation - The amount of money paid to an employee (does not

count benefits, time off, and so forth)

Comparable worth - The idea that jobs requiring the same level of skill and
responsibility should be paid the same regardless of supply and demand.
 8. JOB DESIGN
Job analysis information can be used to determine the
optimal way in which a job should be performed.
9. COMPLIANCE WITH LEGAL GUIDELINES
One legally acceptable way to directly determine job relatedness
is by job analysis

NO LAW specifically requires a job analysis, but several

important guidelines and court cases mandate job analysis for all
practical purposes.
 10. ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of
certain problems within an organization.

JOB ANALYSIS INTERVIEW

Obtaining information about a job by talking to a person performing it.
WRITING A GOOD
JOB DESCRIPTION
 JOB TITLE
An accurate title describes the nature of the job, its power and
status level, and the competencies needed to perform the job

An accurate title also aids in employee selection and

recruitment. If the job title indicates the true nature of the
job, potential applicants for a position will be better able to
determine whether their skills and experience match those
required for the job.
 BRIEF SUMMARY

The summary need be only a paragraph in length but

should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job.
 WORK ACTIVITIES
The work activities section lists the tasks and activities in which
the worker is involved.

These tasks and activities should be organized into meaningful

categories to make the job description easy to read and
understand.

The category labels are also convenient to use in the brief

summary.
 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED
A section should be included that lists all the tools and
equipment used to perform the work activities

Information in this section is used primarily for employee

selection and training. That is, an applicant can be asked if
she can operate an adding machine, a computer, and a credit
history machine
 JOB CONTEXT
This section describes the environment in which the
employee works and mentions stress level, work schedule,
physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature,
number of coworkers, degree of danger, and any other
relevant information.
 WORK PERFORMANCE

This section contains a relatively brief description of how

an employee’s performance is evaluated and what work
standards are expected of the employee.
 COMPENSATION INFORMATION

This section of the job description should contain information

on the salary , whether the position is exempt, and the
compensable factors used to determine salary.

The employee’s actual salary or salary range should NOT be

listed on the job description
 JOB COMPETENCIES
This section contains what are commonly called job
specifications or competencies.

K - Knowledge
S - Skills
A - Abilities
O - Other Characteristics
 PREPARING FOR A JOB ANALYSIS

Who will conduct the Analysis?

How often should a Job Description be updated? (Job Crafting)

Which employees should participate?

What types of information should be obtain?

CONDUCTING JOB
ANALYSIS
 STEP 1: IDENTIFY TASK PERFORMED

identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for
each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the
tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed.

This information is usually gathered by obtaining previous

information on the job, interviewing job incumbents, observing
performance, or actually performing the job itself (Job
Participation).
 AMMERMAN TECHNIQUE (1965)
A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the
objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker

BASIC STEPS IN AMMERMAN TECHNIQUE:

1. Convene a panel of experts that includes representatives from all levels of the
organization.

2. Have the panel identify the objectives and standards that are to be met by the
ideal incumbent.
 AMMERMAN TECHNIQUE (1965)
3. Have the panel list the specific behaviors necessary for each objective
or standard to be attained.

4. Have the panel identify which of the behaviors from step 3 are “critical”
to
reaching the objective.

5. Have the panel rank-order the objectives on the basis of importance

 STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENT

Once the tasks have been identified, the next step is to write the
task statements that will be used in the task inventory and
included in the job description.

TASK INVENTORY
A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job
incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and
time spent.
 STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS

A properly written task statement must contain an action

(what is done) and an object (to which the action is done).
Often, task statements will also include such components as
where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and
when it is done.
 STEP 3: RATE TASK STATEMENTS

Once the task statements have been written (usually including

some 200 tasks), the next step is to conduct a task analysis—using
a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and
the importance or criticality of the task being performed.

TASK ANALYSIS
The process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to
be trained.
 STEP 4: DETERMINE THE ESSENTIAL KSAOs

Once the task analysis is completed and a job analyst has a

list of tasks that are essential for the proper performance of a
job, the next step is to identify the KSAOs needed to perform
the tasks.
 STEP 4: DETERMINE THE ESSENTIAL KSAOs

Knowledge-A body of information needed to perform a task.

Skill-The proficiency to perform a learned task.

Ability-The basic capacity for performing a wide range of tasks,

acquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill.

Other characteristics-Factors that are not knowledge, skills, or

abilities such as personality, willingness, interest, and degrees.
 STEP 5: SELECTING TEST TO TAP KSAOs

The next step is to determine the best methods to tap the

KSAOs needed at the time of hire. These methods will be
used to select new employees and include such methods as
interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests,
reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment
centers.
 OTHER JOB ANALYSIS

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - The PAQ contains 194 items

organized into six main dimensions: information input, mental
processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context,
and other job-related variables such as work schedule, pay, and
responsibility.

Job Structure Profile (JSP) - A revised version of the Position Analysis

Questionnaire (PAQ) designed to be used more by the job analyst than
by the job incumbent.
 OTHER JOB ANALYSIS

Job Elements Inventory (JEI) - similar to the Position Analysis

Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read.

Functional Job Analysis (FJA) - involved with functions in the categories

of data, people, and things.

Job Components Inventory (JCI) - A structured job analysis technique

that concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather
than on specific tasks.
 OTHER JOB ANALYSIS
Critical Incident Technique (CIT) - Use of written reports of good and bad
employee behavior.

Ergonomic Job Analysis (AET) - “Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren

zur Tätigkeitsanalyse”. To obtain information about the work environment

Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) - identify the traits that are necessary for the
successful performance of a job. The 33 items cover five trait categories:
physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social.
 OTHER JOB ANALYSIS
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) - A job analysis method in which jobs
are rated on the basis of the abilities needed to perform them

Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) - A job analysis method that taps the extent
to which a job involves eight types of adaptability:
Handling emergencies or crisis situations / Handling work stress / Solving problems
creatively / Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations / Learning
work tasks, technologies, and procedures / Demonstrating interpersonal
adaptability / Demonstrating cultural adaptability / Demonstrating physically
oriented adaptability
 OTHER JOB ANALYSIS

Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) -

Use to identify the personality types needed to perform job-
related tasks.

Performance Improvement Characteristics (PIC) - Help

determine which of the seven main personality traits are
needed to perform a given job.
 PSY 011

ORGANIZATIONAL
THEORIES

Prepared by: Ms. Nicole A. Aring, RPm

 TALL STRUCTURE

FLAT STRUCTURE

Functional Principle

Narrow Span-of-Control Wide Span-of-Control

Line Function
Line/Staff Principle
Scalar Principle
Staff Function
 CLASSICAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
Organizations exist for economic reasons and to
accomplish productivity goals.
Scientific analysis will identify the one best way to organize
for production.
Specialization and the division of labor maximize
production.
Both people and organizations act in accordance with
rational economic principles.
 CLASSICAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY

W T F
Max Weber Frederick Taylor Henri Fayol

Scientific Administrative
Bureaucracy
Management Management
 BUREAUCRATIC PRINCIPLE

Structure Specialization Predictability

and Stability

Rationality Democarcy
 CLASSICAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY

T
The organization os a machine, a pragmatic
machine whose focus is to simply run more

Frederick Taylor
effectively

Scientific
Management 1. Gathers data from the workers
2. Select (scientifically) workers carefully
3. Combine selection, collection, and training
4. Redistributed
 ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE

Science, not Scientific

rule-of- training of the
thumb worker

Scientific Management of
labour corporation
selection of rather than conflict
worker
 CLASSICAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY

F
Aims to improve organizational productivity bt
focusing on methods that managers can use to

Henri Fayol
synchronize internal processes.

Administrative 1. Planning
Management
2. Organizing
3. Commanding
4. Coordinating
5. Controlling
 ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLE

Line and Principles

(14)
Staff

Committee Functions of
Management
ADMINISTRATIVE’S 14 PRINCIPLES
1. Division of Specialization

2. Authority and Responsibility

3. Discipline

4. Unity of Command

5. Unity of Direction

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest

7. Remuneration of personnel
ADMINISTRATIVE’S 14 PRINCIPLES
8. Centralization

9. Scalar Chain

10. Order

11. Equity

12. Stability of tenure of personnel

13. Initiative

14. Esprit de Corps

 NEOCLASSICAL THEORY

Recognizes the importance of individual or group behavior

and emphasized human relations

Individual Work Group Participative

Management
 MODERN THEORY

WORKER ENVIRONMENT
 MODERN THEORY

System Contingency
Sociotechnical
Spproach /Situational
 MODERN THEORY

Components
System
Spproach
Linking process

Goals of the organization

 MODERN THEORY

People
Sociotechnical

Technology
 MODERN THEORY

Contingency Organization
/Situational Environment
MOTIVATION THEORY

X Y
Theory Theory
X Y
 OPEN-SYSTEM THEORY
Organizations develop and change over time as a result of
both internal and external forces.
 NEOCLASSICAL THEORY

Emphasizes the importance of individual or group behavior

and emphasized human relations

Interrelationship between an organization’s requirements

and the characteristics of its members

Introduced informal organization and emphasized the:

individual, work group, and participative management

 ORGANIZATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Planned, organization-wide effort to increase
organizational effectiveness through behavioral
science knowledge and technology
 ORGANIZATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. Involve the total organization
2. Be supported (and initiated) by top management
3. Entail a diagnosis of the organization, as well as
animplementation plan
4. Be long-term processes
5. Focus on changing attitudes, behaviors, and performance
of groups/teams
6. Emphasize the importance of goals, objectives, and
planning