Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems

2.1 BACKGROUND
Water injection or water flooding refers to the method in the oil industry
where water is injected into the reservoir, usually to increase pressure and there by
stimulate production. Water injection wells can be found both on and offshore, to
increase oil recovery from an existing reservoir.

A water injection system combines a process facility with a distribution system to

produce and deliver water of a given quality to the injection wellbore. There are three
primary goals from an operational standpoint:

1. Deliver clean water to the injection wellbore.

2. Prevent plugging and deposition of solids in lines, vessels and wells.

3. Maintain system integrity by preventing the corrosion of surface and downhole

equipment.

Measurement of the chemical and physical characteristics of injection water is the basis
for both design and monitoring of any water injection system. The measurement and
importance of the majority of these characteristics have been previously discussed.
However, one topic remains to be addressed prior to an examination of system design and
monitoring: water sensitive formations.

2.2 WATER SENSITIVE FORMATIONS

Clays which exist in sandstone formation rocks are in equilibrium with the connate or
natural formation water. When these clays come in contact with injection water or
treating fluids, interaction may can take place between the clays and the injected fluid
which may result in decreased permeability. In water injection projects, this type of
formation damage occurs most commonly when the salinity of the injection water is
significantly lower than that of the connate water.

Carbonate formations are seldom clay-bearing, and when clays are present, they are
incorporated into the matrix. Hence, carbonate reservoirs are seldom subject
topermeability reduction as a result of interactions between clays and injected fluids

6
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
Nearly all sands and sandstones contain clays which may be present as part of the matrix,
as a coating on the pore walls, or lie loose in the pores. Clays may also be present as thin
layers in sand beds.

A combination of swelling and dispersion commonly referred to as clay blocking is

considered the predominant mechanism of permeability reduction by injection of low
salinity water Slight swelling promotes loosening and mobility of fine particles from the
pore walls. The particles are rearranged during fluid flow, and are trapped at the pore
exits.

The most common clay mineral groups known to cause permeability damage to
formations are the smectite group (of which the montmorillonites are the best known),
kaolins, chlorites and illites.

These clays are constructed of particles which can adsorb water on their surfaces and
edges and, in the case of montmorillonite, between the layers of the basic particle itself.
This adsorption increases as water salinity decreases and results in clay swelling or
dispersion . Permeability reduction due to the hydration of montmorillonite is much
greater than that due to the hydration of other clays. Dispersion of illite is less than
montmorillonite, and least with kaolonite and chlorite.

In general, waters with salinities at least as great as those shown in Table (2.1) will cause
little reduction in permeability as a result of clay swelling.

Strong acids (1.0 N HCl) and strong bases (0.5 N NaOH) can also cause clay swelling.

7
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
TABLE 2.1:Minimum Salinities of Brines Required to Prevent Clay Blocking in Water-Sensitive
Formations

Concentration (ppm)
Clay Species
NaCI CaCl KCI
Montmorillonite 30000 10000 10 000
Illite,Kaolinite,Chlorite 10000 1000 1000

2.3 GUIDELINES TO SYSTEM DESIGN

2.3.1 Water Source Selection:
The first step in selecting a water supply is to determine how much water will be needed.
The source must be able to supply sufficient water to achieve the maximum desired
injection rate for the project being considered. A pilot flood is often instituted initially
before expansion to a full scale flood. If this is done, the water source used for the pilot
should be the same as would be used for the full scale flood. This will give you a valid
index of the behavior of the water and offer a chance to work out the major problems
before expansion.

Some of the common sources of water for a waterflood are:

1. Produced water.

2. Oxygen-free brine or fresh water from other subsurface zones (supply wells).

3. Surface water from oceans, lakes, ponds, streams or rivers.

4. Water wells which draw water from shallow aquifers. This type of water typically
contains a few ppm of dissolved oxygen, but is not saturated.

Each of these sources present different potential handling problems. Often there is no
choice to be made, as there is only one adequately sized source available. Also, it is often
necessary to mix waters from several sources to achieve the desired volume.
A summary of the main items to be considered in water source selection follows.

8
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
2.3.1.1 Corrosion:
The corrosivity of each water should always be measured if possible. If meaningful
measurements cannot be made, then a "guesstimate" of the relative corrosivity of the
various waters can be made if you know something about the PH, dissolved gases, and
the salinity. Remember the importance of on-site measurements using fresh samples.

There are three reasons to maintain effective corrosion control:

1. To obtain an acceptable service life for the equipment.

2. To minimize the generation of suspended solids.

3. To prevent loss of water to the environment, primarily to avoid pollution.

The widespread use of carbon steel in injection systems is often a compromise choice,
since most oilfield waters have a pronounced appetite for steel. Steel offers a combination
of high strength, low cost and easy fabrication which is very attractive to a designer.
However, many times the low initial cost is more than offset by the subsequent costs of
corrosion control and injection-well damage. It is often possible to obtain adequate
system life, but impossible to maintain the needed water quality due to contamination of
the water by corrosion products.

 Solids Generation:

Corrosion products constitute the primary source of suspended solids generated within
bare-steel injection systems. Suspended solids deposition in the injection system
contributes to accelerated corrosion rates due to under-deposit corrosion, provides a
hiding place for bacteria, and shields the pipe surface from contact with corrosion
inhibitors and/or biocides. A dirty bare-steel system is difficult to keep in one piece.

Suspended solids which do not precipitate in the injection system contribute to poor water
quality and injection-well plugging. Water quality often becomes the controlling variable
in the selection of a corrosion control strategy when the purpose of the system is to
deliver high quality water to the injection wellbore.

9
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
The degree of contamination resulting from the corrosion of steel is determined by the
corrosion rate and the solubility of the corrosion product. Iron carbonate is quite soluble
in most injection waters, and normally does not contribute to suspended solids. However,
iron sulfide and ferric hydroxide are exceptionally insoluble and can create serious
plugging and water quality problems. Hence, solids generation is particularly difficult to
control in naturally sour waters and in sweet systems where sulfate reducing bacterial
activity and/or oxygen entry is significant. Sweet systems include deaerated seawater,
produced water and supply-well water containing no initial H2S.

2.3.1.2 Scaling Tendency:

Scaling calculations should be made to determine the probability of scale
formation from each water. Remember that on-site measurement of pH, HCO3- and CO3=
are necessary for accurate calcium carbonate scale calculations.

2.3.1.3 Water Compatibility:

If two or more waters must be mixed on the surface prior to injection, scaling calculations
and compatibility tests should be performed. Also, the compatibility of the injection
water 'with the formation water must be assessed to determine if scale problems are likely
in the producing wells after breakthrough of injection water.

2.3.1.4 Suspended Solids

The suspended solids concentration, the particle size distribution, and the nature and
composition of the solids all have an important influence on the plugging tendency of a
water. These same parameters also strongly influence filter selection if filtration is
required.

2.3.1.5Water Quality:

Water quality testing can be carried out on each water using membrane filters or core
samples.

10
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
2.3.1.6 Bacteria:

A bacterial analysis of all potential water sources should be made. However, it should be
noted that bacterial problems can develop in injection systems using an initially sterile
water. Systems are easily infected and bacterial growth can be extremely rapid.

2.3.1.7 Oil Content:

Any produced water which may be a candidate for injection would be examined for oil
content. Any oil in the water can result in decreased injectivity, especially when
combined with suspended solids such as iron sulfide. Also, emulsion blocks can form in
injection wells.

2.3.1.8 Formation Sensitivity:

Some formations contain clays which swell upon contact with low salinity water. This
can result in reduced permeability and injectivity. Tests should be conducted on core
samples to determine if this is a problem when low salinity injection waters are used.

2.3.2 Types of Treating Systems:

Water treating systems have historically been classified as closed or open.

2.3.2.1 Closed Systems:

A closed system is one which is designed to completely exclude oxygen. Since oxygen is
one of the primary troublemakers, all modern water injection systems are designed as
closed systems, regardless of the water source.

2.3.2.2 Open Systems:

In open systems no attempt is made to exclude oxygen. Although open systems were
popular many years ago, they are no longer used. One of the major reasons for their
demise is the fact that most injection wells are equipped with carbon-steel casing strings.
Hence, even if all surface facilities and the injection tubing strings are coated, lined, or

11
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
built of corrosion resistant materials, the injection-well casing string below the packer
will be exposed to oxygenated water, and will eventually be destroyed by corrosion. In
addition, the exclusion of oxygen precludes the growth of aerobic slimes within the
system, thereby eliminating a common cause of injection well plugging. Hence, it is
common practice to deoxygenate waters that initially contain dissolved oxygen, such as
surface waters and shallow-well waters prior to injection.

2.3.3 Primary Problems:

Each type of water presents a different set of problems. It is extremely risky to make
many generalizations. The following statements briefly summarize some of the primary
problems which might be anticipated with injection waters from different sources.

2.3.3.1 Seawater:

1. Saturated with oxygen - very corrosive.

2. Contains suspended solids and marine organisms. Amount varies with location and
depth. Should be filtered in most cases.
3. Contains aerobic bacteria and sulfate reducing bacteria.
4. Fouling must be prevented in the intake system.
5. Calcium carbonate scale often forms in the injection wells and in heat exchange
equipment.
6. Contains a high concentration of sulfate. Calcium sulfate scale is not likely in the
injection system. However, if the formation water contains sufficient quantities of
barium, strontium or calcium, sulfate scale formation in the producing wells is likely
after breakthrough of the injection water.
7. Reservoir souring is likely. Hence, the impact of H2S on the design of producing
wells and production facilities must be considered prior to construction.

12
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
2.3.3.2 Fresh Surface Water:

1. Saturated with oxygen - corrosivity varies with water composition.

2. Normally contains suspended solids which must be removed. May be seasonally
variable.
3. Aerobic bacteria are usually encountered, and it is not uncommon to find sulfate
reducers growing under deposits in the system.
4. Downhole scale formation may be a problem, but is often minimal due to the low
dissolved solids.
5. May be incompatible with the formation water.
6. Can cause clay swelling and loss of injectivity if formation contains sensitive clays.

2.3.3.3 Produced Water:

1. Usually contains dissolved H2S and/or CO2. Corrosivity varies.

2. Usually contains suspended solids. Corrosion product is most common solid.
3. Oil carryover is a frequent problem.
4. Various types of bacteria, including sulfate reducing bacteria, are often present.
Scale formation is possible. However, most scale problems are in the production
system, and scale in the injection system is unlikely unless there are incompatibility
problems due to mixing with another water prior to injection.

13
Chapter(2) Water Injection Systems
2.3.3.4 Subsurface Source Water:

1. May not be very corrosive, depending on composition, providing it is free of

dissolved oxygen. Oxygen leakage into source well annulus is a frequent problem.
Water from shallow aquifers often contains oxygen.
2. May be scale forming. Normally a scaling water would not be used.
3. If sufficiently fresh, formation sensitivity must be considered.
4. Various types of bacteria, including sulfate reducing bacteria can be a problem.
5. May contain suspended solids. Normally this is not a problem, and most source
waters do not require filtration.
6. Watch for incompatibility with formation water. The possibility of scale problems in
the producing wells after breakthrough must be examined.

14