Lesson

The Biology of Skin Color

Student Handout

HUMAN SKIN COLOR: EVIDENCE FOR SELECTION

INTRODUCTION
Our closest primate relatives have pale skin under dark fur, but human skin comes in a variety of
shades from pinkish white to dark brown. How did this variation arise? Many biological traits have
been shaped by natural selection. To determine whether the variation in human skin color is the result
of evolution by natural selection, scientists look for patterns revealing an association between different
versions of the trait and the environment. Then they look for selective pressures that can explain the
association.
In this lesson, you will explore some of the evidence for selection by analyzing data and watching the
film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color), featuring
anthropologist Dr. Nina Jablonski. In Part 1 of this lesson, you’ll discover the particular environmental
factor correlated with the global distribution of skin color variations. In Parts 2 and 3, you’ll come to
understand the specific selective pressures that have shaped the evolution of the trait. Finally, in Part
4, you’ll investigate how modern human migration is causing a mismatch between biology and the
environment.
PROCEDURE
Read the information in Parts 1–4 below, watching segments of the film as directed. Answer the
questions in each section before proceeding to the next.

PART 1: Is There a Connection Between UV Radiation and Skin Color?

Watch the film from the beginning to time stamp 5:49 minutes. Pause when Dr. Nina Jablonski asks
the question, “Is there a connection between the intensity of UV radiation and skin color?”
In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that the sun emits energy over a broad spectrum of
wavelengths. In particular, she mentions visible light that you see and ultraviolet (UV) radiation that you
can’t see or feel. (Wavelengths you feel as heat are in a portion of the spectrum called infrared.) UV
radiation has a shorter wavelength and higher energy than visible light. It has both positive and
negative effects on human health, as you will learn in this film. The level of UV radiation reaching
Earth’s surface can vary depending on the time of day, the time of year, latitude, altitude, and weather
conditions.
The UV Index is a standardized scale that forecasts the intensity of UV radiation at any given time and
location in the globe; the higher the number, the greater the intensity.
Examine Figure 1 and answer Questions 1–6.

www.BioInteractive.org Published October 2015

Page 1 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

Figure 1. Ultraviolet Radiation Index Across the World. The colors on this map of the world represent
Ultraviolet (UV) Index values on a particular day in September 2015. The UV Index is a standardized scale of UV
radiation intensity running from 0 (least intense) to 18 (most intense). The y-axis values are degrees of latitude,
which range from the equator (0°) to the poles (90° north and −90° south). The x-axis values are degrees of
longitude, which range from the prime meridian (0°) to the antimeridian (180° east and −180° west). (Source:
European Space Agency, http://www.temis.nl/uvradiation/UVindex.html.)

QUESTIONS
PART 1: Interpreting the Figure
1. Describe the relationship between the UV Index (the colored bar in Figure 1) and latitude (y-axis).
The intensity of the UV radiation decrease futher from the poles and increase close to the
equator, the intensity increase with latitudes is greatest at lower altitudes.

2. How do you explain the relationship between the UV Index and latitude? (In other words, why does
UV intensity change with latitude?)
It has to do with the angle of Earth in relation with the sun. Latitudes inferiores the equator,
receive direct sunlight all year and latitudes towards the Poles receive sunlight in a period of
the year.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 2 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

3. Find your approximate location on the map. What is the primary UV Index value of your state on
Ecuador has UV index of 12-14

4. Look at the regions that receive the most-intense UV (light pink). Cite a specific piece of evidence
from the map that a factor other than latitude was contributing to UV intensity on this day.

In this map the UV index values in the Andes and Himalayas are higher than they should be, this because the evidence that i can give is the increasing UV intensity
and altitude. Also here there could be more humidity and less clouds so the UV index values strengths rise with altitude.

5. In the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that melanin, located in the top layer of human skin, absorbs UV
radiation, protecting cells from the damaging effects of UV. Genetics determines the type of
melanin (i.e., brown/black eumelanin or red/brown pheomelanin) and the amount of melanin
present in an individual’s cells.
Based on this information, write a hypothesis for where in the world you would expect to find
human populations with darker or lighter skin pigmentation (i.e., different amounts of melanin).

Based on this information, write a hypothesis for where in the world you would expect to find human populations with darker or lighter skin pigmentation (i.e.,
different amounts of melanin).
Population with darker skin tones will be founded in regions with higher UV radiation, therefore equatorian regiones have the darkests and people at higher

altitudes May have lighter skin color.

6. Explain how scientists could test this hypothesis.

Scientists could test this hypothesis by identifying the skin color of people in different regions and contrast with the UV index anually in this regions.

PROCEDURE
PART 1 (continued)
You will now look at another figure that has to do with skin color. One way to measure skin color is by
skin reflectance. Scientists can shine visible light on a portion of skin (typically the inside of the arm)
and then measure how much light is reflected back. Dark skin reflects less visible light than does light
skin. The lower the reflectance value, therefore, the darker the skin.
Examine Figure 2 and answer Questions 7–9.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 3 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

Figure 2. Relationship Between Skin

Reflectance and Latitude. This figure shows
how skin reflectance changes with latitude.
Negative latitudes are south of the equator
(located at 0°), and positive latitudes are north
of the equator. Available reflectance data from
multiple sources were combined to form this
graph. All combined data were obtained using
a reflectometer with an output of 680
nanometers (i.e., a wavelength of visible light)
and placed on the subjects’ upper or lower
inner arms. (Source: Panel B of Figure 2 in
Barsh (2003). Graph originally captioned as
“Summary of 102 skin reflectance samples for
males as a function of latitude, redrawn from
Relethford (1997).” © 2003 Public Library of
Science.)

QUESTIONS
PART 1 (continued)
7. Why do you think that reflectance data are collected from a subject’s inner arm?
Because the external factors have impact in the inner arm as in all our body

8. Describe the relationship between skin reflectance (y-axis) and latitude (x-axis). Consider both the
direction and steepness of the lines’ slopes.

The skin reflectance increases when you move north and South from the equator. And This mean that the skin get darker in the regions that are near the
equator and lighter if the regions are at north or south.

9. Do these data support your hypothesis from Question 5? Justify your answer.

This graphs support the hypothesis, because it indicates that darker skinned people tend to live around the equator, where the UV intensity is higher. This

means that people with darker skin color have more eumelanin in their skin, wich relflects less visible light.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 4 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

PROCEDURE
PART 1 (continued)
Watch the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color) from
time stamp 5:49 minutes to 9:08 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That suggests that
variation in human skin melanin production arose as different populations adapted biologically to
different solar conditions around the world.”
After watching this segment of the film, answer Question 10.
QUESTION
PART 1 (continued)
10. Based on what you know about skin pigmentation so far, suggest a mechanism by which UV
intensity could provide a selective pressure on the evolution of human skin color. In other words,
propose a hypothesis that links skin color to evolutionary fitness.
Selective pressure of UV intensity May have played a role in the Evolution of human skin color, melanin protects against skin cancer.

PROCEDURE
PART 2: What Was the Selective Pressure?
Watch the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color) from
time stamp 9:08 minutes to 12:19 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “For that reason, though it
might cut your life short, it’s unlikely to affect your ability to pass on your genes.”
After watching this segment of the film, answer Questions 11–13.
QUESTIONS
PART 2

11. What does it mean for a trait, such as light skin coloration, to be under negative selection in
equatorial Africa? Relate negative selective pressure to what we know about MC1R allele diversity
among African populations.
It means that there is selection against that trait, the amoung the african ethnicity, there is a little variation in MC1R alleles, almost Everyone have the allele
associated with the skin trait. There is a selection against any MC1R that dont code for darker skin people under selection.

12. Why does Dr. Jablonski dismiss the hypothesis that protection from skin cancer provided selection
for the evolution of darker skin in our human ancestors?

Because skin cancer usually occurs after a persons prime reproductuve years. A trait must have an effect on the ability of a person to survive and pass on its
genes in order to be subject to natural selection.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 5 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

____________________________________________________________________________________
13. Revisit your hypothesis from Question 10. Based on the information you have now, does this seem
like a more or less probable hypothesis than when you first proposed it? Provide evidence to
support your reasoning.
Persons with darker skin tones have a greater ability to withstand the harmful effects of high levels of UV radiation, particularly in regions closer to the
equator where the sun's intensity is stronger. Over time, darker-skinned individuals were more likely to survive and reproduce in areas with high UV intensity,
which contributed to the evolution of dark skin coloration as a beneficial adaptation. Persons with lighter skin in areas of lower UV intensity may have been
able to absorb UV light more efficiently and synthesize vitamin D, thereby leading to lighter skin tones in those regions.

PROCEDURE
PART 2 (continued)
Watch the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color) from
time stamp 12:19 minutes to 13:32 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That is what melanin
does.”
In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski references a paper she had read about the connection
between UV exposure and the essential nutrient folate (a B vitamin), which circulates throughout the
body in the blood. The paper, published in 1978, describes how the serum (blood) folate
concentrations differed between two groups of light-skinned people. You will now look at one of the
figures from that paper.
Examine Figure 3 and answer Questions 14–17.

Figure 3. Folate Levels in Two Groups of

People. In one group (“patients”), 10 individuals
were exposed to intense UV light for at least 30–
60 minutes once or twice a week for three
months. Sixty-four individuals not receiving this
treatement (“normals”) served as the control
group. The difference between the two groups
was statistically significant (p < 0.005). Brackets
represent the standard error of the mean, and
“ng/mL” means “nanograms per milliliter.”
(Republished with permission of the American
Assn for the Advancement of Science, from Skin
color and nutrient photolysis: an evolutionary
hypothesis, Branda, RF and Eaton, JW,
201:4356, 1978; permission conveyed through
Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 6 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

QUESTIONS
PART 2: Interpreting the Figure
14. Describe the relationship between folate levels and UV exposure. Use specific data from the graph
to support your answer.
The group exposed to UV radiation exhibited lower serum folate levels. The average concentration for the normal group was
approximately 7ng/mL, whereas the average concentration for the patient group was approximately 4ng/mL.

15. Dr. Jablonski describes learning that low folate levels are linked to severe birth defects as a
“eureka moment.” Explain what she means by this.

Dr. Jablonski observed a significant correlation between phenotype, environment, and fitness. This correlation offers an
alternative hypothesis to explain the selective pressure that led to the evolution of dark skin.

16. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the selective pressure on the
evolution of human skin color.

The higher concentration of eumelanin in darker skin provides protection against the breakdown of folate caused by UV radiation. This protective
mechanism enhances the overall fitness of populations residing in regions with high UV intensity.

17. Can the effects of UV light on folate explain the full variation of human skin color that exists among
human populations today? Explain your reasoning.
Protection against folate degradation due to UV radiation may indeed explain the selective pressure for the development of darker skin. However, it does not
fully account for the observed variations in human skin color. Other factors, such as the geographic distribution of UV radiation, migration patterns, and genetic
factors, contribute to the complex mosaic of human skin coloration. Understanding the complete picture of human skin color variation requires considering
these multifaceted influences in addition to the protective role against folate destruction.

PROCEDURE
PART 3: Why Aren’t We All Dark Skinned?
Watch the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color) from
time stamp 13:32 minutes to 16:04 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “Support for the idea
that the UV–vitamin D connection helped drive the evolution of paler skin comes from the fact that
indigenous peoples with diets rich in this essential vitamin have dark pigmentation.”
Unlike many essential nutrients, vitamin D is produced by the human body. One type of UV radiation
called UVB starts a chain of reactions that convert 7-dehydrocholesterol—a chemical found in skin—
to vitamin D. Vitamin D is essential to the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the foods we

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 7 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

eat to make strong bones. It is also important for reproductive health and for the maintenance of a
strong immune system. How much UVB exposure is necessary to synthesize sufficient vitamin D
depends largely on two factors: UVB intensity and skin color. In general, at a given UV intensity, a
dark-skinned individual must be exposed to UVB five times as long as a light-skinned individual to
synthesize the same amount of vitamin D.
Dr. Jablonski and Dr. George Chaplin published a paper in which they theorize whether available UV
around the world would enable individuals with different skin colors to synthesize an adequate amount
of vitamin D. Figure 4 and Table 1 summarize the results.
Analyze Figure 4 and Table 1 and answer Questions 18–22.

Figure 4. Comparison of Geographic Areas in Which Mean UVB Intensity Would Not Be Sufficient for
Vitamin D Synthesis by Populations with Different Skin Colors. Widely spaced diagonal lines show regions in
which UVB radiation, averaged over an entire year, is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with lightly,
moderately, and darkly pigmented skin. Narrowly spaced diagonal lines show regions in which UVB radiation is
not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with moderately and darkly pigmented skin. The dotted pattern
shows regions in which UVB radiation averaged over the year is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis in people
with darkly pigmented skin. (Reprinted from The Journal of Human Evolution, 39:1, Nina G. Jablonski and
George Chaplin, The Evolution of Human Skin Coloration, 57-106, Copyright 2000, with permission from
Elsevier.)

Table 1. Key to Zones in Figure 4.

Skin Pigmentation Wide Diagonals Narrow Diagonals Dots

Light N Y Y
Moderate N N Y
Dark N N N
Note: “Y” means that an individual with that skin pigmentation could synthesize sufficient vitamin D in the region
indicated throughout the year. “N” means that the person could not.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 8 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

QUESTIONS
PART 3: Interpreting the Figure
18. Based on these data, describe the populations least likely to synthesize sufficient levels of vitamin
D. Explain your answer with data from the table.
People with darker skin are indeed less likely to have sufficient levels of vitamin D, as their skin is less efficient at producing it in response to sunlight
exposure. This is particularly relevant in regions where UV intensity is lower, resulting in reduced vitamin D synthesis. However, even individuals with
moderately dark skin can still synthesize adequate vitamin D if they reside in areas closer to the equator, where the sun's intensity is stronger. Therefore,
proximity to the equator can mitigate the challenges faced by darker-skinned individuals in terms of vitamin D production.

19. How do these data support the hypothesis that the evolution of lighter skin colors was driven by
selection for vitamin D production?
Light-skinned individuals have a greater ability to synthesize sufficient vitamin D, particularly in regions with higher latitudes.
Their light skin facilitates the production of vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure, even in areas farther away from the
equator. In this context, having light skin can be seen as an advantageous adaptation that enhances the fitness of individuals
living in non-equatorial region

20. For a person living farther away from the equator, would the risk of vitamin D deficiency be uniform
or vary throughout the year? If it would vary, how would it vary? Explain your reasoning.

The strength of UV radiation varies throughout the seasons, and the risk of vitamin D deficiency tends to increase during winter when UV rays are weaker. During this
time, the reduced intensity of UV radiation makes it more challenging for the skin to produce an adequate amount of vitamin D

21. Vitamin D and folate levels in the blood are both affected by UV light. Describe the predicted
effects of using a tanning booth (which exposes skin to UV light) on the blood levels of these two
vitamins.

Exposure to tanning beds increases the production of vitamin D and can result in lower levels of folic acid. However, it is important
to note that using tanning beds also raises the risk of developing skin cancer. Therefore, while tanning beds may enhance vitamin D
circulation, the potential negative consequences, including increased skin cancer risk, make them an unsafe method for obtaining
vitamin D.
r

22. Based on everything that you have learned so far, provide an explanation for how the different
shades of skin color from pinkish white to dark brown evolved throughout human history.
Darker skin tones evolved as a result of providing better adaptations to early human populations living in equatorial regions, such as
Africa. Dark skin effectively impedes the breakdown of circulating folic acid caused by strong UV radiation. However, as some human
populations migrated to areas where UV rays are less intense, there was a selection pressure for lighter skin tones that allow for more
UV radiation to pass through. This adaptation facilitated vitamin D synthesis, preventing a deficiency. Therefore, the evolution of human
skin color variation can be understood as a delicate balance between the need for UV protection to maintain sufficient circulating folate
levels and the requirement for some UV exposure to prevent vitamin D deficiency.

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 9 of 10
 Lesson
The Biology of Skin Color
Student Handout

PROCEDURE
PART 4: How Does Recent Migration Affect Our Health?
Watch the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color) from
time stamp 16:04 minutes to the end.
In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski and Dr. Zalfa Abdel-Malek explain that some people are living in
environments that are not well matched to their skin colors. One example is vitamin D production. The
recommended level of circulating vitamin D is 20 ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter). But, as you learned in
Part 3, vitamin D production is affected by UV intensity and skin color.
Figure 5 shows the concentrations of serum 25(OH)D vitamin, which is the main type of vitamin D that
circulates in blood. Measurements were taken among people living in the United States and were
standardized to negate the effects of weight, age, and other factors.
Examine Figure 5 and answer Questions 23 and 24.

Figure 5. Adjusted mean serum

25(OH)D levels according to
race/ethnicity and stratified according
to gender (n = 2629). aAdjusted for
gender, age, weight, education, income,
urban, region; b adjusted for age, weight,
education, income, urban, region.
(Reproduced with permission from
Pediatrics 123, 797-803, Copyright© 2009
by the AAP.)

QUESTIONS
23. Describe the trends visible in the data. Which subpopulation (gender, race/ethnicity) is at the
greatest risk for vitamin D deficiency? Which subpopulation is at the least risk for vitamin D
deficiency?
Among men and women living in the USA, non-Hispanic blacks generally have the lowest average levels of vitamin D, while non-Hispanic whites tend to
have the highest average levels. Specifically, non-Hispanic black women are identified as the subpopulation at the highest risk for vitamin D deficiency,
whereas non-Hispanic white men are considered to be at the lowest risk of deficiency. These variations in vitamin D levels across different demographic
groups reflect differences in factors such as skin pigmentation, sunlight exposure, dietary habits, and potentially genetic factors, which can impact the
body's ability to produce or absorb vitamin D.

24. What is one of the consequences of recent human migrations on human health?

One consequence of these variations is that people's skin tones may not align well with the UV intensity in the region where they reside. Individuals with darker skin tones
living in areas with low UV intensity may face challenges in obtaining sufficient vitamin D. Conversely, individuals with lighter skin tones living in regions with high UV intensity
may have an increased risk of sunburn or other harmful effects of UV radiation. This mismatch between skin tone and UV intensity highlights the importance of sun
protection measures, such as sunscreen and appropriate clothing, as well as considering other sources of vitamin D, such as diet and supplements, to ensure optimal
health in different environments

www.BioInteractive.org
Page 10 of 10