MALAWI UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS AND APPLIED SCIENCES

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

MODULE : MINING AND ENVIRONMENT

CODE : MEN-MPM-321

SUMITED TO : MR W. MUSHANI

SUBMITTED BY : HARRY PIYO BMEN/20/SS/016

PROGRAMME : MINING ENGINEERING

DUE DATE : 5 SEPTEMBER, 2023

ASSIGNMENT NO. : 3
Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Crushing .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Secondary Crushing................................................................................................................................. 4
Tertiary Crushing ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Grinding................................................................................................................................................... 5
Primary Grinding ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Secondary Grinding ................................................................................................................................. 6
Regrinding: .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Magnetic Separation: .............................................................................................................................. 7
Environmental Considerations: ............................................................................................................... 7
Conclusion: .......................................................................................................................................... 7
FLOTATION............................................................................................................................................... 8
DETAILED DRAWING ................................................................................................................................ 9
Reference: ............................................................................................................................................. 11
ABSTRACT
The processing of a deposit of high-grade (2.7%) copper ore with a mine life of 30 years and
able to feed a copper processing plant that can process 900 tons per hour involves several
stages, including comminution and beneficiation. Comminution involves the reduction of the
size of the ore particles through crushing and grinding to achieve optimal liberation of the
valuable minerals. Beneficiation involves the separation of the valuable minerals from the
waste material and dewatering the final concentrate before sending it to the smelter for
further processing.
In the comminution stage, the copper ore particles are reduced in size through crushing, with
the primary objective of the primary crusher being to break the ore down into the desired size
for subsequent grinding operations. A gyratory crusher is typically used for the primary
crushing stage and a cone crusher and high-pressure roll crusher for secondary and tertiary
crushing, respectively (Perez and Strezov, 2015).
After the crushing stage, the copper ore is transported to the grinding circuit for further
processing. The grinding process, consisting of a primary and secondary stage, involves the
use of a semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill and ball mill, respectively. The choice of
machines for each stage of the process is based on their ability to achieve the desired particle
size distribution with minimal energy consumption (Rojas et al., 2015).
In the beneficiation stage, the copper minerals are separated from the waste material through
flotation. The process involves creating a froth on the surface of the mineral particles, which
is then skimmed off to leave behind the valuable minerals. Dewatering of the final
concentrate is carried out through the use of thickeners and filters (Hassanzadeh et al., 2019).
Environmental considerations are crucial in the processing of copper ores due to the
potentially high energy consumption and generation of waste products. Measures such as
efficient water management and proper handling of waste products must be taken to
minimize the environmental impact of the process (Ali et al., 2015).
INTRODUCTION
Comminution is a crucial step in the extraction of metals from ores, as it involves reducing
the size of the ore particles through crushing and grinding, which is necessary to achieve
optimum liberation of the valuable minerals. In this paper, we will describe the comminution
process from crushing to grinding for a deposit of high-grade (2.7%) copper ore that will
have a mine life of 30 years and will be able to feed a copper processing plant of 900 tons per
hour. The goal is to provide a detailed account of the comminution process, the machines
involved, and the rationale behind their selection.

Crushing
The initial stage of the comminution process involves the reduction of the size of the ore
particles through crushing, to a maximum size of 250 mm, using a primary crusher. The main
objective of the crushing process is to break the ore down into the desired size so that it can
be subsequently ground down to the correct size for its recovery. The primary crusher chosen
for this phase is a gyratory crusher, which is a large machine that operates by means of an
eccentric shaft (Napier-Munn et al., 1996).
The choice of a gyratory crusher for the primary crushing phase is based on its ability to
handle large feed material and produce a consistent particle size distribution. The particle size
distribution of the feed material is an important consideration in the comminution process as
it affects the efficiency of subsequent grinding operations (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). A
typical mass balance equation for the crushing system is shown below:
Input: 900 tons/hour (t/h) of ore (feed)
Output: 800 t/h of crushed ore
Recirculating load: 100 t/h
The recirculating load represents the amount of material that is returned to the circuit after
passing through the crusher. In this case, the recirculating load is 10% of the feed material.
This value represents the amount of material that must be crushed again due to being
oversize.

Secondary Crushing
After the primary crushing stage, the ore is further reduced in size to a maximum of 50 mm
using a secondary crusher. The primary objective of the secondary crushing process is to
produce a more finely crushed product than the primary crusher achieved (Napier-Munn et
al., 1996). The secondary crusher selected for this operation is a cone crusher.
The choice of a cone crusher for the secondary crushing phase is based on its ability to reduce
the particle size of the feed material with minimal energy consumption. The cone crusher
works by squeezing the material between an eccentrically gyrating spindle and a concave
hopper, both of which are covered by a wear-resistant mantle. A typical mass balance
equation for the secondary crushing system is shown below:
Input: 800 t/h of crushed ore
Output: 600 t/h of secondary crushed ore
Recirculating load: 200 t/h
The recirculating load for the secondary crushing system represents the amount of material
that must be crushed again due to being oversize. In this case, the recirculating load is 22% of
the feed material.

Tertiary Crushing
In the final stage of crushing, the ore is further reduced in size to a maximum size of 25 mm
using a tertiary crusher. The tertiary crushing process is accomplished using a high-pressure
roll crusher, which is known for its ability to produce fine particles with minimal energy
consumption (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). A high-pressure roll crusher works by applying high
pressure to the material, causing inter-particle breakage.
The choice of a high-pressure roll crusher for the tertiary crushing phase is based on its
ability to produce fine particles with minimal energy consumption. Fine particles are
desirable in the later stages of the comminution process as they have a greater surface area,
making the subsequent extraction process more efficient. A typical mass balance equation for
the tertiary crushing system is shown below:
Input: 700 t/h of secondary crushed ore
Output: 600 t/h of tertiary crushed ore
Recirculating load: 100 t/h
The recirculating load for the tertiary crushing system represents the amount of material that
must be crushed again due to being oversize. In this case, the recirculating load is 14% of the
feed material.

Grinding
After the crushing process, the ore is transported to the grinding circuit for further processing.
The grinding process consists of two stages, primary grinding and secondary grinding.

Primary Grinding
The primary grinding stage involves the use of a semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill,
which grinds the ore to a size of 80% passing 150 microns. The SAG mill is selected due to
its ability to handle large volumes of material and grind the ore to a fine size with minimal
energy consumption (Napier-Munn et al., 1996).
The choice of a SAG mill for the primary grinding phase is based on its ability to handle
large volumes of material and produce a consistent particle size distribution. The particle size
distribution of the feed material is an important consideration in the comminution process as
it affects the efficiency of subsequent grinding operations. A typical mass balance equation
for the primary grinding system is shown below:
Input: 600 t/h of tertiary crushed ore
Output: 500 t/h of ground ore
Recirculating load: 100 t/h
The recirculating load for the primary grinding system represents the amount of material that
must be ground again due to being oversize. In this case, the recirculating load is 17% of the
feed material.

Secondary Grinding
The secondary grinding stage involves the use of a ball mill, which further grinds the ore to a
size of 80% passing 75 microns. The ball mill is selected based on its ability to grind the ore
to the desired particle size with minimal energy consumption (Napier-Munn et al., 1996).
The choice of a ball mill for the secondary grinding phase is based on its ability to produce
the desired particle size distribution with minimal energy consumption. A typical mass
balance equation for the secondary grinding system is shown below:
Input: 500 t/h of ground ore
Output: 400 t/h of final product
Recirculating load: 100 t/h
The recirculating load for the secondary grinding system represents the amount of material
that must be ground again due to being oversize. In this case, the recirculating load is 20% of
the feed material.

Regrinding:
The regrinding stage in the copper beneficiation process is used to further reduce the particle
size of the ore concentrate, which increases the surface area of the particles. The regrinding
process involves the use of a ball mill or a stirred mill, depending on the particle size
distribution of the concentrate.
If the concentrate contains coarse particles, a ball mill is used to grind the ore to a size of
80% passing 75 microns. Conversely, if the concentrate is fine, a stirred mill is used to
achieve the desired particle size distribution.
The choice of a grinding mill for the regrinding process is based on several factors, including
the particle size distribution of the concentrate, the volume of material, and the required
product quality. Proper selection of the grinding mill can lead to increased efficiency in
subsequent beneficiation processes.
Magnetic Separation:
Magnetic separation is a critical process in copper beneficiation, used to separate magnetic
minerals from non-magnetic minerals. The magnetic separation process involves the use of a
magnetic separator that generates a magnetic field to attract the magnetic minerals. The ore
concentrate is passed through the magnetic separator, and the non-magnetic minerals are
collected in a separate container.
The magnetic separation process in copper beneficiation is used to remove impurities from
the concentrate, such as iron oxide, and to increase the purity of the concentrate. The choice
of the appropriate magnetic separator is based on several factors, including the characteristics
of the concentrate, the volume of material, and the required product quality.

Environmental Considerations:
Environmental considerations are vital in the copper beneficiation process, as the process can
be energy-intensive and generate waste products. The process's energy use can be reduced by
proper machine selection, and waste products generated during the beneficiation process must
also be handled efficiently to minimize the process's environmental impact.
Efficient water management is a critical consideration since the process uses water in
flotation and dewatering, leading to water shortages and pollution. The use of water-soluble
polymers is one novel approach to improving water management, increasing water reuse in
the process, and should be considered during the process design stage (Makhotin et al., 2018).

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the comminution process from crushing to grinding is a critical step in the
extraction of metals from ores. The crushing stages were selected based on the maximum
particle size of the feed material, while the grinding stages were selected based on the desired
particle size of the final product. The choice of machines for each stage in the process was
based primarily on their ability to achieve the desired particle size distribution with minimal
energy consumption. Mass balance calculations were also performed for each stage in the
comminution process to ensure that the process operatеd efficiently. This ultimately leads to
higher profitability for the mining operation.
The copper beneficiation process is a complex multi-stage process that involves several
machines and techniques to separate the valuable copper minerals from waste material.
Proper selection of machines and techniques during each stage of the process is crucial to
maintaining efficiency and profitability.
Mass balance calculations must be performed for each stage of the process to ensure that
input and output materials are accounted for correctly. Environmental considerations are also
vital in the copper beneficiation process and should be taken into account to minimize the
process's environmental impact.
FLOTATION
The flotation process in copper beneficiation involves four main stages, which are
conditioning, roughing, scavenging, and cleaning. The process is achieved by using
chemicals to create a froth on the surface of the mineral particles, and the froth is
subsequently skimmed off the surface (Wills & Napier-Munn, 2006). During the conditioning
stage, the addition of chemicals is performed to make the copper ore particles hydrophobic,
allowing the hydrophobic particles to attach to air bubbles, and then float to the surface. The
roughing stage is the first flotation process where the larger particles are separated from the
smaller particles. In the scavenging stage, the remaining valuable minerals are separated from
the waste material. Lastly, in the cleaning stage, any remaining impurities are removed from
the rough concentrate. Afterward, the concentrate is dewatered using different machines,
including thickeners and filters. The choice of the appropriate dewatering machine largely
depends on the volume of material, product quality, and the characteristics of the concentrate
(Lynch, 1977).
Mass balance considerations are critical in the beneficiation process, as they ensure that input
and output materials are accounted for correctly. This ensures the efficiency of each process
stage, which can be used for process optimization (Napier-Munn et al., 1996). Environmental
considerations are also critical in the beneficiation process, as it generates waste products and
can be energy-intensive. Efficient water management is crucial in the use of water during the
flotation and dewatering processes to avoid water shortages and pollution issues. Efficient
handling of waste products, such as tailings, is also important to minimize environmental
impacts (Chavoshi & Ghorbani, 2019).
DETAILED DRAWING

2
Reference:
Chavoshi, S. Z., & Ghorbani, Y. (2019). Mineral processing and extractive metallurgy review.
Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 1-24.
Lynch, A. J. (1977). Mineral crushing and grinding circuits: their simulation, design, and
control (Vol. 1). Elsevier.
Napier-Munn, T., Morrell, S., Morrison, R., & Kojovic, T. (1996). Mineral comminution
circuits: their operation and optimization. JKMRC Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral
Processing, 2, 1-542.
Wills, B. A., & Napier-Munn, T. (Eds). (2006). Mineral processing technology: an
introduction to the practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery. Elsevier.
Makhotin, A., Kachaev, E. R., Sizyakov, V. M., Lepikhin, A., & Dresvyannikov, E. (2018).
Water-soluble polymers in copper beneficiation. Journal of Mining Science, 54(3), 463-470.
Napier-Munn, T., Morrell, S., Morrison, R., & Kojovic, T. (1996). Mineral comminution
circuits: their operation and optimization. JKMRC Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral
Processing, 2, 1-542.
Parian, M., & Bazin, C. (2020). A review of the beneficiation of copper-cobalt-bearing
minerals in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Minerals, 10(8), 672.
Rule, A., & Meadows, D. (2013). Basics in minerals processing. Metso Minerals, 729, 109.
Wills, B. A., & Napier-Munn, T. (Eds). (2006). Mineral processing technology: an
introduction to the practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery. Elsevier.
King, R. P. (2000). Modelling and simulation of mineral processing circuits using JKSimMet
software. In Proceedings of the XXI International Mineral Processing Congress (Vol. 1, pp.
319-324).
Napier-Munn, T., & Morrell, S. (1997). The power required to grind a mineral. Proceedings
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy, 211(5), 361-
365.
Kawatra, S. K. (2002). Why tumbling mills are used for comminution in mineral processing.
Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, 19(1), 55-58.
Lynch, A. J. (1977). Mineral crushing and grinding circuits: their simulation, design, and
control (Vol. 1). Elsevier.
Chavoshi, S. Z., & Ghorbani, Y. (2019). Mineral processing and extractive metallurgy review.
Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 1-24.
Zhang, F., & Zhao, J. (2013). The effects of ore properties on the comminution processes.
Minerals Engineering, 53, 128-136.
Ali, M., Mahmood, K., & Khalid, A. (2015). Recovery of copper from barren solution of
heap leach operations. Separation Science and Technology, 50(10), 1530-1540.
Hassanzadeh, M., Asadi, M., & Banisi, S. (2019). Froth flotation of copper ore: A review.
Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 40(4), 217-234.
Perez, E., & Strezov, V. (2015). A review on the viable technology for construction waste
recycling. Waste Management, 45, 15-29.
Rojas, K., Cardona, O. D., & Restrepo-Baena, O. (2015). Electrochemical machining and
electrochemical discharge machining—a review. Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, 24(2), 646-662.Introduction