chapter eight

SPECIAL MACHINES

Large electric machines, dc or ac, are used primarily for continuous energy conversion. How-
ever, there are many special applications where continuous energy conversion is not required.
For example, robots require position control for movement of the arm from one position to
another. The printer of a computer requires that the paper move by steps in response to signals
received from the computer. Such applications require special motors of low power rating. The
basic principle of operation of these motors is the same as that of other electromagnetic motors.
However, their construction, design, and mode of operation may be different. In this chapter the
operation of servomotors, synchro motors, and stepper motors is discussed.

8.1 SERVOMOTORS
Servomotors, sometimes called control motors, are electric motors that are specially designed
and built, primarily for use in feedback control systems, as output actuators. Their power
rating can vary from a fraction of a watt up to a few hundred watts. They have a high speed of
response, which requires low rotor inertia. These motors are therefore smaller in diameter and
longer. They normally operate at low or zero speed and thus have a larger size for their torque
or power rating than conventional motors of similar rating. They may be used for various
applications, such as robots, radars, computers, machine tools, tracking and guidance systems,
and process controllers. Both dc and ac servomotors are used at present.

8.1.1 DC SERVOMOTORS
DC servomotors are separately excited dc motors or permanent magnet dc motors. A schematic
diagram of a separately excited dc servomotor is shown in Fig. 8.1a. The basic principle of
operation is the same as that of the conventional dc motors discussed in Chapter 4. These dc
servomotors are normally controlled by the armature voltage. The armature is designed to
have large resistance so that the torque–speed characteristics are linear and have a large neg-
ative slope, as shown in Fig. 8.1c. The negative slope provides viscous damping for the servo
drive system. Recall that the armature mmf and excitation field mmf are in quadrature in a dc
machine (Fig. 8.1b). This provides a fast torque response, because torque and flux are decoupled.
Therefore, a step change in the armature voltage (or current) results in a quick change in the
position or speed of the rotor.

8.1.2 AC SERVOMOTORS
The power rating of dc servomotors ranges from a few watts to several hundred watts. In fact,
most high-power servomotors are dc servomotors. At present, ac servomotors are used for

412
 Servomotors 413

FIGURE 8.1 DC servomotor.

(a) Schematic diagram.
(b) Armature mmf and field
mmf. (c) Torque–speed
characteristics.

low-power applications. AC motors are robust in construction and have lower inertia. How-
ever, in general, they are nonlinear and highly coupled machines, and their torque–speed
characteristics are not as ideal as those of dc servomotors. Besides, they are low-torque devices
compared to dc servomotors of the same size.
Most ac servomotors used in control systems are of the two-phase squirrel-cage induction
type. The frequency is normally rated at 60 or 400 Hz; the higher frequency is preferred in
airborne systems.
A schematic diagram of a two-phase ac servomotor is shown in Fig. 8.2. The stator has two
distributed windings displaced 90 electrical degrees apart. One winding, called the reference or
fixed phase, is connected to a constant-voltage source, Vm =−0 . The other winding, called the
control phase, is supplied with a variable voltage of the same frequency as the reference phase but
is phase-displaced by 90 electrical degrees. The control phase voltage is usually supplied from a

FIGURE 8.2 Two-phase ac servomotor. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Torque–speed characteristics.
414 chapter 8 Special Machines

FIGURE 8.3 Drag-cup rotor construction.

servo amplifier. The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase relation, leading or
lagging, of the control phase voltage with respect to the reference phase voltage.
For balanced two-phase voltages, jVa j = jVm j, the torque–speed characteristic of the motor is
similar to that of a three-phase induction motor. For low rotor resistance, this characteristic
is nonlinear, as shown in Fig. 8.2b. Such a torque–speed characteristic is unacceptable in
control systems. However, if the rotor resistance is high the torque–speed characteristic, as
shown in Fig. 8.2b, is essentially linear over a wide speed range, particularly near zero speed.
To control the machine it is operated with fixed voltage for the reference phase and variable
voltage for the control phase. The torque–speed characteristics are essentially linear (high rotor
resistance assumed) for various control phase voltages, as shown in Fig. 8.2b.
In low-power control applications (below a few watts), a special rotor construction is used to
reduce the inertia of the rotor. A thin cup of nonmagnetic conducting material is used as the
rotor, as shown in Fig. 8.3. Because of the thin conductor, the rotor resistance is high, resulting
in high starting torque. A stationary iron core at the middle of the conducting cup completes
the magnetic circuit. With this type of construction the rotor is called a drag-cup rotor.

8.1.3 ANALYSIS: TRANSFER FUNCTION AND BLOCK DIAGRAM

Consider the servo system shown in Fig. 8.4. The input variable is the control phase voltage Va
and the output variable is either position θ or speed ωm . Most loads are a combination of inertia
JL and viscous friction FL .
The torque–speed characteristics of the unbalanced two-phase motor shown in Fig. 8.2b are
assumed to be linear and equally spaced for equal increments of the control phase voltage. The
motor torque can be written as
T = Km Va − Fm ωm ð8:1Þ

where Km is the motor torque constant in N  m=volt

Fm is the motor viscous friction in N  m=radian=sec

FIGURE 8.4 Servo system using a two-phase motor.

 Servomotors 415

Note that Fm is just the slope of the torque–speed curves at constant control phase voltage Va .
Also, Km is the change in torque per unit change in control phase voltage at constant speed.
The equation of motion of the servomotor driving the load is
dωm
T = Km Va − Fm ωm = ðJm + JL Þ + FL ω m ð8:2Þ
dt
where JL is the load inertia
Jm is the motor inertia
If θ is the angular position of the load

dθ
= ωm is the speed of the system
dt
Equation 8.2 can also be written as
dθ d2 θ dθ
Km Va − Fm = ðJm + JL Þ 2 + FL ð8:3Þ
dt dt dt
Equations 8.2 and 8.3 can also be written as
dωm
Km Va = ðJm + JL Þ + ðFm + FL Þωm ð8:4Þ
dt
d2 θ dθ
Km Va = ðJm + JL Þ + ðFm + FL Þ ð8:5Þ
dt2 dt
Note that the negative slope (Fm ) of the torque–speed characteristic of the motor corresponds
to viscous friction and therefore provides damping for the system.
Taking the Laplace transforms of Eqs. 8.4 and 8.5,
ωm ðsÞ Km =F
= ð8:6Þ
Va ðsÞ 1 + sτ m
θðsÞ Km =F
= ð8:7Þ
Va ðsÞ sð1 + sτ m Þ
where F = FL + Fm
J = JL + Jm
τ m = J=F is the mechanical time constant of the drive system.
Equations 8.6 and 8.7 are shown in block diagram forms in Fig. 8.5.

FIGURE 8.5 Transfer functions.

416 chapter 8 Special Machines

Time Response for a Step Change in Control Phase Voltage:

Open-Loop Operation
Consider a step change in the control phase voltage Va , as shown in Fig. 8.6a.

V
Va ðsÞ =
s

From Eq. 8.6,

Km =F V
ωm ðsÞ =
1 + sτ m s
!
Km V 1 1
= −
F s s + 1=τ m

The corresponding time function is

Km V
ωm ðtÞ = ð1 − e−t=τ m Þ ð8:8Þ
F
The steady-state speed is
Km V
ωm ð1Þ = ð8:9Þ
F

FIGURE 8.6 Step

response in a two-phase
servo system.
(a) Step change in Va .
(b) Response in speed.
(c) Response in position.
 Servomotors 417

From Eq. 8.7,

Km =F V
θðsÞ =
sð1 + sτ m Þ s

Km V Km Vτ m Km Vτ m
= − +
Fs 2 Fs Fðs + 1=τ m Þ

The corresponding time function is

Km V Km Vτ m Km Vτ m −t=τ m
θðtÞ = t− + e ð8:10Þ
F F F

The speed response and the position response are shown in Figs. 8.6b and 8.6c, respectively.

EXAMPLE 8.1
A two-phase servomotor has rated voltage applied to its reference phase winding. The torque–
speed characteristic of the motor with Va = 115 V, 60 Hz applied to its control phase winding is
shown in Fig. E8.1. The moment of inertia of the motor and load is 10−5 kg  m2 , and the
viscous friction of the load is negligible (Fig. 8.4).

(a) Obtain the transfer function between shaft position θ and control voltage Va .
(b) Obtain an expression for the shaft position due to the application of a step voltage
Va = 115 V to the control phase winding.

Solution
 
T  0:2 
(a) Km =  = = 0:00174 N  m=V
Va ωm = constant 115 ωm = 0

T  0:2
Fm = = = 0:0006366 N  m=rad=sec
ω m  Va = constant 3000 × 2π=60

FIGURE E8.1
418 chapter 8 Special Machines

F = Fm + FL = Fm + 0 = Fm

J = 10−5 Kg  m2

J 10−5
τm = = = 15:71 × 10−3 sec
F 0:0006366

Km 0:00174
= = 2:733
F 0:0006366

From Eq. 8.7,

θðsÞ 2:733
=
Va ðsÞ sð1 + 0:01571sÞ

115
(b) Va ðsÞ =
s
Km V
= 2:733 × 115 = 314:3
F
Km V
τ m = 314:3 × 0:01571 = 4:94
F

From Eq. 8.10,

θðtÞ = 314:3t − 4:94 + 4:94 e−t=0:01571

’ 314:3t ▪
Application: Radar Position Control
A typical closed-loop position control system using a two-phase ac servomotor is shown in
Fig. 8.7. With this system the position of a radar antenna can be controlled.

FIGURE 8.7 Radar

position control system.
 Servomotors 419

Two potentiometers are used as position transducers. The reference potentiometer generates
a voltage Eref depending on the desired position command θref . The second potentiometer
coupled to the shaft of the servomotor produces a voltage E proportional to the output
shaft position θ. The difference in the two voltages, Eerror ð= Eref − EÞ, is therefore proportional
to the position error θref − θ. This error is fed to a servo amplifier, which generates the nec-
essary voltage Va for the control phase winding of the servomotor to reduce the position error
to zero.

EXAMPLE 8.2
For the position control system shown in Fig. 8.7, let the potentiometer transducers give a
voltage of 1 volt per radian of position. The transfer function of the servo amplifier is
GðsÞ = 10ð1 + 0:01571sÞ=ð7 + sÞ. Assume that the initial angular position of the radar is zero.
The transfer function between the motor control phase voltage Va and radar position θ is
MðsÞ = 2:733=sð1 + 0:01571sÞ.

(a) Derive the transfer function of the system.

(b) For a step change in the command angle of 180 (= π radians), find the time response of
the angular position of the antenna.

Solution
(a) The block diagram is shown in Fig. E8.2a. This can be simplified to the block diagram
shown in Fig. E8.2b. From Fig. E8.2b,

θðsÞ 27:33=sðs + 7Þ 27:33

= =
θref ðsÞ 1 + 27:33=sðs + 7Þ s2 + 7s + 27:33

This equation represents a second-order system. The corresponding block diagram is

shown in Fig. E8.2c.
π
(b) θref ðsÞ =
s
27:33 π
θðsÞ =
s2 + 7s + 27:33 s
27:33
=π
sðs2 + 7s + 27:33Þ
ω2n
=π
sðs2 + 2ξωn s + ω2n Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where ωn = 27:33 = 5:228 rad=sec
7 7
ξ= = = 0:67
2ωn 2 × 5:288
420 chapter 8 Special Machines

FIGURE E8.2

The time response is

2 3
−ξωn t
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
6 e 7
θðtÞ = π41− qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sin ωn 1 − ξ 2 t + cos−1 ξ 5
2
1−ξ

= π½1 − 1:347e−3:5t sinð3:88t + 48 Þ radian

The position response is shown in Fig. E8.2d. ▪

8.1.4 THREE-PHASE AC SERVOMOTORS

DC servomotors have dominated the area of high-power servo systems. Recently, however, a
great deal of research has been conducted on the use of three-phase squirrel-cage induction
motors as servomotors for application in high-power servo systems. A three-phase induc-
tion motor is normally a highly nonlinear coupled-circuit device. Many researchers have
operated this machine successfully as a linear decoupled machine, similar to a dc machine,
 Synchros 421

using a control method known as vector control or field-oriented control.1 In this method, the
currents in the machine are controlled so that torque and flux are decoupled as in a dc
machine. This provides a high-speed response and high-torque response. In Japan, three-phase
induction motors with vector control are being increasingly used as servomotors.

8.2 SYNCHROS
Synchros are ac electromagnetic devices that convert a mechanical displacement into an
electrical signal. Synchros are widely used in control systems for transmitting shaft position
information or for maintaining synchronism between two or more shafts. They are used pri-
marily to synchronize the angular positions of two shafts at different locations where it is not
practical to make a mechanical interconnection of the shafts.
There are many types of synchros and a wide variety of applications. In this section only the
synchro control transmitter (CX), synchro control receiver (CR), and synchro control transformer
(CT) are discussed.
The control transmitter (CX) has a balanced three-phase stator winding similar to the stator
winding of a three-phase synchronous machine. The rotor is of the salient pole type using
dumbbell construction with a single winding, as shown in Fig. 8.8a. If a single-phase ac voltage
is applied to the rotor through a pair of slip rings, an alternating flux field is produced along the
axis of the rotor. This alternating flux induces voltages in the stator windings by transformer
action. If the rotor is aligned with the axis of stator winding 2, flux linkage of this stator
winding is maximum, and this position is defined as the electrical zero position of the rotor.
Figure 8.8b shows the rotor position displaced from the electrical zero by the angle α.
The control transformer (CT) has a uniform air gap because of the cylindrical shape of the
rotor, as shown in Fig. 8.9a. This feature is important for the control transformer, because
the rotor terminals are normally connected to an amplifier and the latter should see a constant
impedance irrespective of rotor position. The electrical zero is defined as the position of the

FIGURE 8.8 Synchro control transformer (CX). (a) Construction. (b) Schematic
diagram.

1
W. Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1985.