coatings
Article
Design of Metamaterial-Inspired High-Temperature Microwave
Sensor on Alumina Ceramics
Bo Wang *, Bei Han, Youwei Li, Fei Gao, Chaohui Chen, Junqiang He and Ke Wang
Citation: Wang, B.; Han, B.; Li, Y.;
Gao, F.; Chen, C.; He, J.; Wang, K.
Design of Metamaterial-Inspired
High-Temperature Microwave Sensor
on Alumina Ceramics. Coatings 2023,
13, 1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/
coatings13071213
Academic Editors: Cezary
Senderowski and Núria Cinca
Received: 2 June 2023
Revised: 1 July 2023
Accepted: 3 July 2023
Published: 6 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13071213
School of Automation, Xi’an University of Posts and Telecommunications, Xi’an 710121, China
* Correspondence: wangbo_chen@xupt.edu.cn
Abstract: The issues of high costs and sophisticated circuit structures limit applicability of traditional
chipped sensors. This paper innovatively designs a chipless sensor based on the split-ring resonator
combined with temperature-sensitive material as the substrate. The alumina ceramics are used as the
sensitive material for reflecting the environment temperature in accordance with its characteristic that
its dielectric constant increases monotonically with rising temperature. The simulation demonstrates
that the resonant frequency of the sensor monotonically decreases from 8.58 GHz to 8.22 GHz with
an offset of 0.36 GHz and a sensitivity of 0.9 MHz/◦ C for a variation from 500 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C. The
sensor designed in this paper has good resonance characteristics, is wireless, passive, and low cost,
has a planar structure, and is suitable for various harsh environments.
Keywords: chipless temperature sensor; split-ring resonator; alumina ceramics
1. Introduction
Since its invention in the 1940s, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology
has evolved into a basic device for automatic identification in a wide range of sectors,
which include aerospace, machinery production, rail transportation, and medical devices.
Traditional temperature sensors must be calibrated or replaced on a regular basis due
to their low stability in severe conditions. As a result, RFID technology is becoming
increasingly widespread in today’s scientific and technology fields. It utilizes radio fre-
quency to identify target objects under the influence of electromagnetic waves in space.
This process does not include a human being and can be used to conduct non-contact
two-way communication [1,2]. Since its inception to the present, RFID technology has
advanced steadily in terms of efficiency, cost, and performance. More and more industries
are integrating RFID technology, and system capabilities are being expanded.
Traditional RFID sensors are based on a built-in silicon chip, using additional electronic
components, and detect changes in circuit voltage to characterize changes in physical
parameters [3], but the shortcomings are that the design cost is too high and the silicon chip
cannot work when the surrounding temperature is above 85 ◦ C. Thus, the scope of use is
very limited. Chipless RFID sensors do not need separate sensing circuits. In some unique
circumstances or harsh environments (such as high temperature, strong vibration, strong
electric fields, strong magnetic fields, etc.), the antenna’s electromagnetic characteristics
can still perform their role correctly while removing some precision electronic components;
chipless designs especially and dramatically cut expenses and increase the possibilities of
use [4].
Numerous academics have presently focused their studies primarily on how RFID
and wireless sensing technology can work together.
From the economic point of view, passive sensors are low cost and easy to operate [5].
The research of passive sensors is a popular trend nowadays.
At present, domestic and foreign research on chipless RFID sensors focuses on two
aspects: one is the sensing measurement by the physical parameters of the sensitive material
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Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 2 of 12

itself, and the other is the measurement by using the structural parameters of the sensor in
combination with electronic components.
The sensor’s principle and coding method of a single split-ring resonator were
investigated [6]. Alumina ceramics were used as both the substrate and the sensitive
material. The ambient temperature rose from 28 ◦ C to 1100 ◦ C, and the resonant frequency
of the sensor decreased from 2.417 GHz to 2.320 GHz. However, the sensing distance of the
sensor was short and only 20 mm in the Maffei furnace temperature experiment.
A temperature sensor consisting of a miniature double piezoelectric wafer cantilever
beam (aluminum–silicon) and a single split-ring resonator was designed [7]. Due to its
special double-layer structure with different materials on the top and bottom layers, when
the external temperature changes, the two materials will expand or shrink to different
degrees; thus, the arm beam deflects and changes the frequency response of the split-ring
resonator and the resonant frequency is shifted. According to the experimental results
derived from the scaling model, the sensitivity of this sensor is as high as 2.5 MHz/◦ C,
but the complexity of its double-layer cantilever structure and the fabrication process is
extremely cumbersome. The measured results are less reliable and have poor hysteresis,
which is not suitable for mass-production [8].
A passive electromagnetic temperature sensor with multiple input and output delay
lines was designed based on the backscattering principle using split-ring resonator (SRR)
resonator as well as a thermistor [9]. The thermistor was added to the magneto-inductive
wave (MIW) to simulate the temperature increase by heating, and its frequency as well as
impedance characteristics were used to determine the connection between its resistance
value and resonant frequency.
The research issues mentioned in the majority of studies include the significant cost
of delicate materials, bulky tag antenna structures, and challenging fabrication processes.
The sensors are preferred to be small and low-cost in the aerospace and manufacturing
industries. Since the furnace wall, pipe wall, combustion chamber, and turbine engine have
little space, the sensors are mounted on the them and rotated at high speed. Furthermore,
the small sensors take some time to react to the temperature varies, preventing real-time
measurements. Therefore, the research of a small and low-cost tag antenna has become the
main problem of RFID research.
This study introduces a chipless passive sensor that can measure high temperatures
based on the split-ring resonator and the operation of radar cross-section. The sensor label
can produce a resonant response in a certain frequency range by varying the size and other
aspects of the sensor built using HFSS simulation software, allowing the parameters of the
sensor to be identified. It is evaluated and discussed how well the sensor performs at high
temperatures, and it is explained how to use the resonator to monitor the temperature of
the environment.

2. Principle Analysis
Figure 1 illustrates an RFID system for temperature monitoring. The two main com-
ponents of the RFID measurement system which play a vital role in the generation and
reception of a signal from the sensor are the vector network analyzer (VNA) and antenna
subsystem. The function of a VNA is to generate the transmitted signals impinged on
the sensor and detect the backscattered signals reflected towards the reader. LabVIEW
software is used to record the measurement samples of the backscattered signals. The
post-processing analysis is performed in MATLAB. The antenna subsystem is utilized to
transmit and receive signals. Incident-plane EM waves are used to energize the RFID sensor
when placed in the vicinity of the reader. The chipless RFID sensor absorbs electromagnetic
waves transmitted by the reader. These EM waves, when impinged on the sensor, stimulate
the current on the metallic surface of the resonating structure. In response to this, the mod-
ulated backscattered signals which encode data from the sensor containing the exclusive
temperature of the attached device under test (DUT) are returned towards the reader.
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12

Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 3 of 12

the exclusive temperature of the attached device under test (DUT) are returned towards
the reader.

Figure 1. A chipless RFID sensor system.

Figure 1. A chipless RFID sensor system.
The proposed passive chipless RFID sensor has the capability of tracking the tempera-
ture of The
an proposed
attached DUT.passiveThe chipless RFID sensor
temperature changes,hascausing
the capability of tracking
the permittivity ofthe
thetemper-
sensor
ature of an attached DUT. The temperature changes, causing the permittivity
substrate to change, which makes the operating frequency of the sensor shift considerably. of the sensor
substrate
The sensortoconverts
change, thewhich makes the parameter
temperature operating frequency of the sensor
into a frequency shift considerably.
parameter. The shift in
The sensor converts the temperature parameter into a frequency
frequency of the sensor is observed for variations in temperature. Subsequently, parameter. Thetheshift
RFID in
frequency
system can of
bethe
used sensor is observed
to monitor for variations
the real-time in temperature.
temperature from the Subsequently,
resonant frequency.the RFID
systemThecan be used
single to monitor
split-ring the real-time
resonator temperature
was innovatively from theand
improved resonant frequency.on
screen-printed
alumina Theceramic
single split-ring
to form the resonator waswhich
sensor [10], innovatively improved
is a simple and screen-printed
sensor with low profile andon alu-
small
mina ceramic to form the sensor [10], which is a simple sensor with
size. Given that the split-ring resonator on the antenna label is detuned with temperaturelow profile and small
size.that
and Given that
there is athe split-ring
positive resonator
linear on the
relationship antennatemperature
between label is detuned with temperature
and dielectric constant
andalumina
for that there is a positive
ceramics, linear relationship
the capacitance betweenresonator
of the split-ring temperature and dielectric
changes as a result,constant
which
for alumina
changes ceramics,frequency
the resonant the capacitance of the split-ring
and, ultimately, resultsresonator changes as a result, which
in temperature-sensing.
changes the resonant frequency and, ultimately, results in temperature-sensing.
2.1. Antenna Shape
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
2.1. Antenna Shape 4 of 12
Figure 2a–c show the structure, top view, and side view of the sensor, respectively.
Table Figure
1 shows the show
2a–c representative meanings
the structure, of each
top view, and parameter.
side view of the sensor, respectively.
Table 1 shows the representative meanings of each parameter.

Table 1. Meaning of antenna parameters.

Variables Parameters
a Substrate length
b Split length
c Distance from substrate edge to resonator split
d Middle resonator width
t Substrate thickness

Figure2.2.Structure
Figure Structureof
ofthe
thesensor
sensor(a);
(a);side
sideview
viewofofthe
thesensor
sensor(b);
(b);top
topview
viewofofthe
thesensor
sensor(c).
(c).

The sensor is composed of the copper metal resonator and the alumina ceramic sub-
strate. The sensor is fabricated by high-temperature co-fired ceramic (HTCC) technology
which exhibits merits of corrosion resistance and high thermal conductivity. The sensor
signal strength is highly affected by the thickness and surface roughness of the metal film.
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 4 of 12

Table 1. Meaning of antenna parameters.

Variables Parameters
a Substrate length
b Split length
c Distance from substrate edge to resonator split
d Middle resonator width
t Substrate thickness

The sensor is composed of the copper metal resonator and the alumina ceramic
substrate. The sensor is fabricated by high-temperature co-fired ceramic (HTCC) technology
which exhibits merits of corrosion resistance and high thermal conductivity. The sensor
signal strength is highly affected by the thickness and surface roughness of the metal film.
To reduce unnecessary loss, the HTCC should be smooth. The alumina ceramic is used as
the substrate for good mechanical strength. The copper paste with the resonator layout is
printed onto the ceramic substrate and then sintered in the furnace with timed temperature
control. The sintering process consists of three stages: heating, insulation, and cooling
stage. By sintering at a high temperature, the organic material in the copper conductor can
be well combined with the ceramic matrix and finally form the sensor.
When compared to the LC helical structure, the SRR structure’s resonant frequency
response is more noticeable and its amplitude is significantly larger during transmission
spectroscopy. Additionally, the electric field density at the gap increases as a result of
charge accumulation [11], providing the SRR structure with a higher quality factor and
significantly raising the sensor’s sensitivity.
Based on the above advantages, this paper designs a new single split-ring resonator by
rotating two opposite 45◦ tangent square split-ring 45◦ counterclockwise and connecting
its left and right two ring right angles with metal to increase the current and improve the
resonance characteristics; its structure is shown in Figure 2.
There are two splits in the ring of the spiral inductor, so the SRR-equivalent lumped
circuit model is approximately estimated by an inductor, as shown in Figure 3. Two side
parts, inductors and capacitance, are denoted as L and C, respectively. L and C represent
the self-inductor produced by a sheet with a split and self-capacitor produced by the
electric charges accumulate at the split. Researchers have shown that the equivalent
LC circuit model of a sensor shows the relation between the resonant frequency
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 ofand
12
capacitance [12,13]. The equation gives the relation between capacitance and permittivity
of substrate.

Lumpedelement
Figure3.3.Lumped
Figure elementdistribution
distributionin
inthe
theequivalent
equivalentcircuit
circuitmodel
modelof
ofan
anSRR.
SRR.

The capacitor, inductor, and excitation power supply are crucial components of the
The capacitor, inductor, and excitation power supply are crucial components of the
traditional LRC resonant circuit. The current distribution and strength on the resonator’s
traditional LRC resonant circuit. The current distribution and strength on the resonator’s
surface is significantly influenced by their shape and size, respectively. The sensing param-
surface is significantly influenced by their shape and size, respectively. The sensing pa-
eter is the capacitance component, and the peak shift of the resonant response is directly
rameter is the capacitance component, and the peak shift of the resonant response is di-
impacted by and reflects changes in capacitance size. The change in temperature alters the
rectly impacted by and reflects changes in capacitance size. The change in temperature
alters the dielectric constant which can alter the capacitance parameters [14]. The three
states of a circuit are capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The circuit will have a resonant
response and produce a resonant frequency when the equivalent impedance is pure re-
sistance. Whether capacitive or inductive, the loop state is constantly in a state of distun-
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 5 of 12

dielectric constant which can alter the capacitance parameters [14]. The three states of a
circuit are capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The circuit will have a resonant response and
produce a resonant frequency when the equivalent impedance is pure resistance. Whether
capacitive or inductive, the loop state is constantly in a state of distuning [15].
An LRC resonant circuit can be compared to the SRR structure. The SRR structure
produces an induced current to create an induced electric field by positioning the SRR
sensor in a changing magnetic field that is absolutely perpendicular to its surface. The
resonance effect will alter whenever there is a change in the induced electric field. In
the SRR structure, the split ring is equivalent to adding two equal capacitors on either
side of the ring, and a weak capacitance will be produced [16]. In contrast, the opposite
splits are in opposite directions, resulting in the concentration of the electric field and the
opposite accumulation of charge, which produces the capacitance effect. The amount of the
SRR structure’s loading capacitance directly relates to the length of the split. A negative
linear relationship exists between the size of the SRR structure’s split and the amount of its
loading capacitance; the smaller the split, the lower the capacitance.
The temperature-sensing of the sensor is based on the principle that the dielectric
constant of alumina ceramic changes in response to temperature changes resulting in the
resonant frequency shifting in response to the change in dielectric constant [17]. Therefore,
based on the designed antenna shape, this paper verifies the feasibility of the principle
through simulation. The substrate length a, split length b, distance between the split and
the edge of the substrate c, the middle resonator width d, and substrate thickness t can be
adjusted to change the resonant frequency response of a given SRR structure. The variation
of inductive and capacitive properties distinctly affects the resonant frequency of the SRR
since their fundamental resonance character can be modeled by an LC circuit. The inductive
properties are mainly influenced by the dimensions of the metallic component. On the other
hand, the capacitive properties are primarily impacted by the structure of the SRR and
substrate permittivity. The permittivity change corresponds with the temperature change.
The variation of permittivity results in a resonant frequency shift. Thus, this method can
also be used to change the capacitance of the sensor monitoring the temperature.

2.2. Sensitive Material

One of the essential components of a sensor label is sensitive material, which has a
built-in sensitivity to particular environmental factors and may be used to track changes in
the environment. The sensitive material used in this study is an alumina ceramic, which has
coherent chemical and physical properties and a temperature-dependent dissipation factor.
As the temperature rises, the alumina ceramic’s thermal motion of the ions and dipoles
becomes stronger and its dielectric constant soars, which directly impacts the change in
resonant frequency [18].
Alumina ceramics are chosen for two reasons: in terms of performance, they have
a greater thermal conductivity and can sense the external temperature more sensitively
with less error, while they have good chemical properties and higher mechanical strength,
making them less susceptible to wear and imparting a longer service life [6]. In terms of
cost-effectiveness, alumina ceramics have high temperature resistance and can be used at
temperatures up to 1400 ◦ C. The melting temperature of copper is 1080 ◦ C, so the sensor
measurement temperature ranges from 500 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C. The backside substrate of the
alumina ceramic is pasted on the object under measurement, while the copper side does
not contact the object. They have a larger measurement range and are less constrained
by environmental factors, which makes them more cost-effective than other temperature-
sensitive materials for temperature detection in harsh environments.

3. Simulation Analysis
The dielectric properties of the component materials control the resonant frequency of
the resonator, and the dielectric constant of the alumina ceramics continues to climb asymp-
totic with temperature. As a result, HFSS application is also used to design the structure,
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 6 of 12

maximize the performance, and simulate the temperature change in the monitored target
environment by changing the dielectric constant of the sensitive material in order to make
the frequency response of the sensor more intelligible.
In this design, the sensor’s sensing function is accomplished by embedding it in
a vacuum waveguide that measures 24 mm in length, 24 mm in width, and 16.66 mm
in height. The simulation assumes that the designed sensor has a center frequency of
8.5 GHz; that the two surfaces parallel to the YOZ plane and the two surfaces parallel to
the XOZ plane are ideal electric conductor surfaces and ideal magnetic conductor surfaces,
respectively; and that the electromagnetic waves are excited on the two surfaces parallel to
the XOY plane and are excited in the negative direction along the X axis. By setting these
special boundary conditions, the alternating electromagnetic field is simulated.
One of the crucial factors that affects the resonator’s physical characteristics is the
sensitive material’s dielectric constant. The resonant response of the sensor is controlled by
the following settings on the resonator’s dielectric constant.
Alumina ceramic has a coefficient of thermal expansion of 7.2 × 10−6 /◦ C. Since its
antenna volume is 288 mm3 , alumina ceramic has a relatively minor dimensional change
of 1.603 mm3 in the temperature range of 500 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C. The resonant frequency is pri-
marily determined by the specifications of the resonator construction because the thermal
expansion characteristics of the alumina ceramic have less of an effect. The simulation’s
standard means of simulating variations in ambient temperature is via varying the magni-
tude of the alumina ceramic’s dielectric constant. There is a distinct minimum value for the
transmission response curve at each temperature, as shown by the observed transmission
response graph for the identified sensor size. The resonant frequency of the resonator is
represented by this minimum value, also known as the resonant point. By comparing the
level of the received signal in the frequency domain, the sensor’s interrogation unit will be
able to determine this minimum [19].
The substrate length, split length, distance from substrate edge to resonator split,
middle resonator width, and substrate thickness are separately studied to optimize the
resonant frequency of reflection coefficient S21 , as shown in Figures 4–8. Meanwhile,
the relationship between the different dimensions with varying dielectric constant and
reflection coefficient S21 are simulated, as shown in Figures 4–8. The dielectric constant
values of the substrate are changed from 10.17 to 10.91. In addition to this, the parameters
of a, b, c, d, e, and t set as 5–7 mm with step 0.5 mm, 1.5–3.5 mm with step 0.5 mm,
2.5–4.5 mm with step 0.5 mm, 0.1–4.1 mm with step 1 mm and 0.3–0.7 mm with step
0.1 mm, respectively, are optimized in HFSS.
For a given dimension, one of these parameters is optimized by fixing the other four
parameters in the simulation. Figures 4–8 indicate that the physical dimensions of the
sensor slightly alter the result of the resonant frequency S21 dramatically deteriorating due
to the electrical properties of the sensor changing. Figures 4–7 show that all dimensions of
substrate length, split length, distance from substrate edge to resonator split, and middle
resonator width are resonant with variation of dielectric constant. Minority dimensions
of substrate thickness are shown to be resonant in Figure 8. It illustrates that substrate
thickness is the most sensitive to S21 . This is because substrate thickness directly affects the
sensitive material’s electrical characteristics. The substrate length, distance from substrate
edge to resonator split, and middle resonator width impact the inductance of an equivalent
model; on the other hand, the split length affects the capacitance of an equivalent model.
Therefore, the dielectric constant changing can be clearly detected through the offset of the
resonant frequency, with the largest offset being 0.36 GHz. Finally, the optimized values
are a = 5.5 mm, b = 3.5 mm, c = 3.5 mm, d = 2.1 mm, and t = 0.5 mm, since they perform a
monotone resonant frequency with increasing dielectric constant.
 Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

0.1–4.1 mm with step 1 mm and 0.3–0.7 mm with step 0.1 mm, respectively, are optimized
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213
0.1–4.1 mm with step 1 mm and 0.3–0.7 mm with step 0.1 mm, respectively, are optimized
7 of 12
in HFSS.
in HFSS.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
(d) (e)
Figure 4. Variation of S21 with dielectric constant ε for different substrate lengths a: (a) a = 5 mm; (b)
Figure 4.Variation
VariationofofSS21 with dielectric constant εεfor
fordifferent
differentsubstrate
substratelengths
lengthsa:a:(a)(a)
a =a 5=mm; (b)
Figure
a = 5.54.mm; (c) a = 6 mm;21 with
(d) a dielectric
= 6.5 mm; constant
(e) a = 7 mm. 5 mm;
a = 5.5 mm; (c) a = 6 mm; (d) a = 6.5 mm; (e) a = 7 mm.
(b) a = 5.5 mm; (c) a = 6 mm; (d) a = 6.5 mm; (e) a = 7 mm.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
(d) (e)
Figure5.5.Variation
Figure Variation ofof
S21S 21 with dielectric constant ε for different resonator split lengths b: (a) b = 1.5
with dielectric constant ε forε different resonator split lengths b: (a) bb:=(a)
1.5bmm;
Figure 5. Variation of S21 with dielectric constant for different resonator split lengths = 1.5
mm; (b) b = 2 mm; (c) b = 2.5 mm; (d) b = 3 mm; (e) b = 3.5 mm.
(b)
mm;b =(b)
2 mm;
b = 2(c)
mm;b =(c)
2.5bmm;
= 2.5(d)
mm;b =(d)
3 mm;
b = 3(e)
mm;b =(e)
3.5bmm.
= 3.5 mm.
 Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 8 of 12

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
(d) (e)
Figure 6. Variation of S21 with permittivity ε for different distances from substrate edge to resonator
Figure6.6.Variation
VariationofofSS21with
with permittivityεεfor
fordifferent
differentdistances
distancesfrom
fromsubstrate
substrate edge to resonator
Figure
split c: (a) c = 2.5 mm; (b) c = 3permittivity
21 mm; (c) c = 3.5 mm; (d) c = 4 mm; (e) c = 4.5 mm. edge to resonator
split c: (a) c = 2.5 mm; (b) c = 3 mm; (c) c = 3.5 mm; (d) c = 4 mm; (e) c = 4.5 mm.
split c: (a) c = 2.5 mm; (b) c = 3 mm; (c) c = 3.5 mm; (d) c = 4 mm; (e) c = 4.5 mm.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
(d) (e)
Figure 7. Variationof of S21 with dielectric constant
constantεεεfor
for different widths ofofthe middle resonator d: (a)
Figure7.7.Variation
Figure Variation ofSS21
21 with dielectric
dielectric constant fordifferent
differentwidths
widthsof themiddle
the middle resonator
resonator d:d:
(a)
d = 0.1 mm; (b) d = 1.1 mm; (c) d = 2.1 mm; (d) d = 3.1 mm; (e) d = 4.1 mm.
(a)
dd = 0.1
= 0.1 mm;
mm; (b)(b)
dd = 1.1
= 1.1 mm;mm;(c)(c)
d =d 2.1
= 2.1 mm;
mm; (d)(d)
d =d3.1
= 3.1
mm;mm;(e)(e)
d =d4.1
= 4.1
mm.mm.
 Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 9 of 12

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure8.8.Variation
Figure Variationofof
S21S21 with
with dielectric
dielectric constant
constant ε forε different
for different thicknesses
thicknesses of substrate
of substrate t: (a) tt:=(a)
0.3tmm;
= 0.3
mm; (b) t = 0.4 mm; (c) t = 0.5 mm; (d) t = 0.6 mm; (e) t = 0.7 mm.
(b) t = 0.4 mm; (c) t = 0.5 mm; (d) t = 0.6 mm; (e) t = 0.7 mm.

For a given
Figures dimension,
4b, 5e, 6c, 7c andone 8c of
showthesethe
parameters
same andisbest optimized
resonant byfrequency
fixing the response
other four
parameters
among in the simulation.
each parameter. When the Figure 4, Figure
dielectric constant 5, Figure 6, Figure
rises from 7 and
10.17 to 10.91Figure 8 indicate
corresponding
that the physical dimensions of ◦
the sensor ◦ slightly alter the◦
to the temperature rising from 500 C to 900 C with step 100 C, the resonant frequency result of the resonant fre-
quency S dramatically deteriorating due to the electrical properties
falls from 8.58 GHz to 8.22 GHz with a 0.36 GHz offset. Therefore, the proposed sen-
21 of the sensor chang-
ing.implements
sor Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure
the temperature-sensing 7 show and
function that all dimensions
detects variationof substrate length,
in the ambient
split length,by
temperature distance
adjustingfromthesubstrate
sensor’s edge to resonator
physical parameters. split, and middle resonator width
are The
resonant with variation
link between of dielectric
the resonant frequencyconstant.
and the Minority dimensions
experimentally of substrate
determined thick-
dielectric
ness areofshown
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW constant aluminato be resonant
ceramic in Figure
is shown 8. It illustrates
in Figure that substrate
9. The resonant frequency thickness 10isofthe
of the sensor most
12label
sensitive drops
gradually to S21. as
This
theisdielectric
because constant
substraterises.
thickness directly frequency
The resonant affects the drops
sensitive
down material’s
pretty
electricalbetween
gradually characteristics.
dielectricThe substrate
constant length,
values distance
of 10.17 from substrate
and 10.80. edge
The velocity to resonator
increases and
the resonant
split, frequency
and middle lowerswidth
resonator as theimpact
dielectric
theconstant
inductancerisesoffrom 10.80 to 10.91.
an equivalent model; on the
other hand, the split length affects the capacitance of an equivalent model. Therefore, the
dielectric constant changing can be clearly detected through the offset of the resonant fre-
quency, with the largest offset being 0.36 GHz. Finally, the optimized values are a = 5.5
mm, b = 3.5 mm, c = 3.5 mm, d = 2.1 mm, and t = 0.5 mm, since they perform a monotone
resonant frequency with increasing dielectric constant.
Figure 4b, Figure 5e, Figure 6c, Figure 7c and Figure 8c show the same and best res-
onant frequency response among each parameter. When the dielectric constant rises from
10.17 to 10.91 corresponding to the temperature rising from 500 °C to 900 °C with step 100
°C, the resonant frequency falls from 8.58 GHz to 8.22 GHz with a 0.36 GHz offset. There-
fore, the proposed sensor implements the temperature-sensing function and detects vari-
ation in the ambient temperature by adjusting the sensor’s physical parameters.
The link between the resonant frequency and the experimentally determined dielec-
tric constant of alumina ceramic is shown in Figure 9. The resonant frequency of the sensor
label gradually drops as the dielectric constant rises. The resonant frequency drops down
pretty gradually between dielectric constant values of 10.17 and 10.80. The velocity in-
creases
Figure and the frequency
9. Resonant resonant versus
frequency
ceramiclowers as permittivity.
relative the dielectric constant rises from 10.80 to
Figure10.91.
9. Resonant frequency versus ceramic relative permittivity.

The literature [2] provides a link between the temperature of alumina ceramics and
the dielectric constant. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between the dielectric constant
of alumina ceramics between 50 °C and 1000 °C. The fitting relationship between the alu-
mina ceramics’ dielectric constant and the ambient temperature is discovered during non-
linear fitting. In the simulation temperature range, the alumina ceramics’ dielectric con-
 Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 Figure 9. Resonant frequency versus ceramic relative permittivity. 10 of 12

The literature [2] provides a link between the temperature of alumina ceramics and
the dielectric
Theconstant.
literatureFigure 10 illustrates
[2] provides the relationship
a link between betweenof
the temperature the dielectric
alumina constant
ceramics and the
of alumina ceramics
dielectric between
constant. Figure5010°Cillustrates
and 1000the °C.relationship
The fitting relationship
between thebetween
dielectricthe alu- of
constant
minaalumina
ceramics’ dielectric
ceramics constant
between ◦ C and
50 and the 1000 ◦ C. The
ambient temperature is discovered
fitting relationship during
between thenon-
alumina
linearceramics’
fitting. Indielectric
the simulation
constanttemperature range,temperature
and the ambient the aluminaisceramics’
discovereddielectric con-
during nonlinear
stant fitting.
rises asInthe
thetemperature
simulation temperature
rises, and therange,
growth therate
alumina ceramics’ dielectric constant rises
rises gradually.
as the temperature rises, and the growth rate rises gradually.
𝜀 = 8𝐸 − 0.7𝑇 2 + 0.0007𝑇 + 9.6499 (1)
2
where ε is the dielectric constantεof 8E − 0.7T
=alumina + 0.0007T
ceramic and T+is9.6499
the ambient temperature. (1)
where ε is the dielectric constant of alumina ceramic and T is the ambient temperature.

Figure 10. Ceramic relative permittivity versus temperature.

Figure 10. Ceramic relative permittivity versus temperature.
Coatings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW The main cause of the two outcomes mentioned above is that, as temperature 11 of 12rises,
The
the thermal motion of the ions and dipoles in alumina ceramics is enhanced, and rises,
main cause of the two outcomes mentioned above is that, as temperature as a result
the thermal motion
the dielectric of the rises.
constant ions and dipoles ineffect
The capacitor alumina ceramics isthe
is strengthened, enhanced,
charge inand as a
the resonator
resultrises,
the dielectric constant rises. The capacitor effect is strengthened, the charge in the
created bythe induced current
integrating rises, andbetween
the relationship the resonant frequency falls all atconstant”
“temperature–dielectric the sameof time.
alu-
resonator The
rises,link
thebetween
inducedthe current rises, and the resonant frequency falls all at the same
mina ceramics in reference [2] sensor’s
and Figure resonant frequency and
9 by integrating temperatureof
the relationship characteristics
“dielectric is
time.depicted in Figure 11 in order to clearly illustrate the aforementioned impact. Figure 11
constant–resonant frequency” obtained through simulation. The one-to-one relationship
The link between
is created the sensor’s
by integrating resonant frequency
thefrequency”
relationship and temperature characteristics is of
between “temperature–resonant isbetween
easier to “temperature–dielectric constant”
see in Figure 11: as temperature
depicted in Figure 11 in order to clearly illustrate the aforementioned impact. Figure 11 is
rises,alumina ceramics
the resonant in reference
frequency [2] and
displays Figure 9trend,
a falling by integrating the relationship
and the speed of “dielectric
of the decrease is
constant–resonant
steady. frequency” obtained through simulation. The one-to-one relationship
between “temperature–resonant frequency” is easier to see in Figure 11: as temperature
rises, the resonant frequency displays a falling trend, and the speed of the decrease is steady.

Figure 11. Resonant frequency versus temperature.

Figure 11. Resonant frequency versus temperature.

According to Formula (2), the sensitivity of the sensor is calculated to be 0.9 MHz/°C,
that is, when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the resonant frequency of the sensor
changes by 0.9 MHz.
|𝑓1 − 𝑓2|
Coatings 2023, 13, 1213 11 of 12

According to Formula (2), the sensitivity of the sensor is calculated to be 0.9 MHz/◦ C,
that is, when the temperature changes by 1 ◦ C, the resonant frequency of the sensor changes
by 0.9 MHz.
| f − f2 |
η= 1 (2)
| T1 − T2 |
where f 1 and f 2 are the measurement of the resonant frequency and T1 and T2 are the
corresponding temperature of the resonant frequency.
Based on the above simulation data, it can be seen that the performance of the sensor
is stable and the sensitivity is high.

4. Conclusions
In this research, a RFID chipless passive temperature sensor with a modified split-ring
resonator and metal metamaterial substrate of alumina ceramic is designed. It has the
advantages of a simple structure, low profile, and stable material. The stable temperature-
sensitive material is designed using alumina ceramics. The equivalent circuit of the sensor
is analyzed. The principle of a chipless RFID system describes that the permittivity of the
sensing substrate changes with temperature, resulting in variation of the sensor’s resonant
frequency. Simulation shows that the resonant frequency decreases approximately linearly
with temperature. The designed sensor operates from 500 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C and responds with
a shift in resonant frequency of 0.36 GHz and average sensitivity of 0.9 MHz/◦ C. Therefore,
the designed sensor is suitable for real-time monitoring of temperature through observing
the resonant frequency.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.W.; formal analysis and data curation, B.H.;
writing—review and editing, K.W., Y.L., C.C., J.H. and F.G. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Youth Science Foundation of the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NO. 12204373).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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