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CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP, INSTRUMENTATION AND

TECHNIQUES

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The schematic diagram and the photographic view of the

experimental set up used in the present investigation are shown in Figures 3.1
and 3.2 respectively. The test facility includes the following arrangements/
instruments/ analyzers:

1. Test engine coupled to an alternator and an electrical loading

device.

2. Airflow measurement using orifice plate and U-tube

manometer.

3. Diesel flow measurement using a burette and stopwatch

arrangement.

4. Hydrogen injector on the intake port and intake manifold for

injecting the hydrogen.

5. Digital mass flow controller for measuring hydrogen flow.

6. Flame trap, Flame arrestor and non return valve for safety

7. Hydrogen leak detector

8. DEE injector on the intake manifold for DEE injection.

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9. Electronic fuel pump for DEE supply

10. Pressure regulator and flow controller for the control of

hydrogen flow and DEE flow.

11. Electronic control unit for the control of hydrogen, DEE

flow and the start of injection.

12. Piezo-electric pressure pick up for in cylinder pressure

measurement.

13. Infra red device for TDC position measurement.

14. Chromel-Alumel thermocouples for the measurement of

temperature in exhaust gases, coolant water, EGR system
and intake charge.

15. P.C. based digital data acquisition system for analyzing the
pressure crank angle data and to obtain heat release rate.

16. Smoke meter for measuring the exhaust smoke

17. Exhaust gas analyzer for measuring HC, CO, NOX, and CO2
emissions

18. Exhaust Gas Recirculation unit

19. Positive crank case ventilation system

20. Flow meter for maintaining the cooling water flow and EGR
flow

21. Digital tachometer for the measurement of speed

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Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

Figure 3.2 Photographic view of the experimental setup

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3.1.1 Test Engine Details

The engine used for the experimental work is a single cylinder,

water-cooled, four stroke, vertical, naturally aspirated stationary, D.I diesel
engine developing a rated power of 3.7 kW at 1500 rpm having a compression
ratio of 16.5:1. The engine is modified to operate with hydrogen by
positioning the injector on the cylinder head for port injection and on intake
manifold for manifold injection. For DEE injection, the injector is positioned
on the intake manifold about 10 cm from the intake port ahead of the
hydrogen injector.

3.1.2 Hydrogen Flow Measurement

Hydrogen from high pressure cylinder of 150 bar is reduced to a

pressure of 1.5 bar – 5 bar based on the flow requirement by using a double
stage pressure regulator. By using a needle valve operated flow regulator the
hydrogen flow is regulated and a filter is used to remove any impurities. The
hydrogen is passed through a digital mass flow controller to measure the flow
rate of hydrogen in standard liters per minute (slpm), which has the flow
range of 0 to 100 litres per minute (lpm). The digital mass flow controller is
calibrated by sending known span gas of hydrogen and the measurements are
repeated 6 times to check for the accuracy and repeatability. The photographic
view of the hydrogen flow arrangement is shown in Figure 3.3.

3.1.3 DEE Flow Measurement

DEE from the electronic fuel pump delivered at a pressure of 15 bar

is regulated to 1-5 bar by using a three stage pressure regulating system. A
copper tube of 2 mm diameter is used for DEE flow and the last stage of the
pressure regulator is connected to the DEE injector. The return fuel from the
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first and second stage of the regulator is connected to the return line of
the DEE fuel pump. DEE flow is metered and controlled as per the injection
quantity requirement for igniting hydrogen and maintain stable, smooth
combustion of hydrogen.

Figure 3.3 Photographic view of the hydrogen flow arrangement

DEE injector is located at a distance of 10 cm from intake valve to

avoid mixing of hydrogen and DEE at intake itself as it might cause
preignition of hydrogen. The position of DEE injector is chosen based on the
literature. DEE injection is used in hydrogen port injection only to avoid
preignition in intake manifold since in hydrogen manifold injection both the
injectors are only 2 mm apart. The injection timing of DEE and quantity of
DEE is decided based on the knock free combustion and smooth running of
the engine. The injection pressure and injection duration for DEE is noted
when the engine is operated with hydrogen using DEE as ignition source. For
the measurement of DEE flow, the injector is removed from the intake
manifold and it is connected to a graduated burette tube. The DEE pump is
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motorized to deliver the same quantity of fuel by presetting the same injection
timing and injection duration noted during the hydrogen operations. The fuel
quantity collected for a specific time of 120 sec is noted and fuel quantity is
measured from the graduation tube. Figure 3.4 shows the photographic view
of the DEE flow arrangement.

Figure 3.4 Photographic view of the DEE flow arrangement

3.1.4 Temperature Measurement

The temperature of the hot exhaust gases, intake charge, coolant

water inlet and outlet, the atmospheric temperature the temperatures of cold
water at inlet and outlet and hot exhaust gases at inlet and outlet of the EGR
system were measured by using a K type (chromel-alumel) thermocouple.
The thermocouples were connected to a 4-point, 6 channel temperature
indicator.
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3.1.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation System

Exhaust gases from the engine were by passed, regulated and

cooled by using the counter flow heat exchanger in the EGR unit. The flow
rate of EGR cooling water is varied in such a way that the cooled exhaust gas
temperature is maintained around 30C. The cooled exhaust gas is allowed to
pass through a filtering device to remove the soot and particulate matter from
the exhaust gas. The EGR flow rate is determined by measuring the CO2
concentration in the exhaust gas.

HYDROGEN GAS
DIESEL
EXHAUST PIPE

INLET
AIR

DYNAMO
ENGINE METER

EXHAU GAS
REGULATOR
ST GAS

EXHAUST
COOLANT
GAS OUT
WATER IN COOLANT
WATER OUT

HEAT
EXCHANGER

Figure 3.5 Schematic view of the EGR unit

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The EGR percentage is calculated by taking the ratio of CO2

concentration present in the intake manifold to the CO2 concentration present
in the exhaust gas (Heffel 2003). The flow rate of EGR is increased until the
necessary CO2 concentration in the intake manifold is achieved. The
schematic view of the EGR unit is shown in Figure 3.5 and the photographic
view is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Photographic view of the EGR unit

3.2 SAFETY ARRANGEMENTS

Hydrogen fuel is often associated with either the Hindenburg or

Challenger disasters or even the hydrogen bomb. However other fuels such as
gasoline and natural gas poses similar dangers. Hydrogen actually has a good
over all safety record due to strict adherence to regulations and procedures,
good training for the persons who handle hydrogen (Addison Bain et al 1999).
In order to have the overall safety the safety devices given below and some
safety measures have been taken for hydrogen operation.
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3.2.1 Hydrogen Leak Detector

A special, effective hydrogen sensor is used to monitor the

hydrogen gas in the operating environment and also used to sense any leak of
hydrogen through the pipeline during installation and operation of the engine.
The sensor works on the principle of electrochemical reaction. The hydrogen
sensor has a beeping circuit which comes into action and give a single beep /
double beep sound continuously if hydrogen is present in the working space.
If the hydrogen in the atmosphere exceeds 100 ppm, a single beep sound is
produced continuously and a double beep sound if the hydrogen concentration
exceeds 200 ppm. The beep sounds continue until the hydrogen concentration
reduces below 100 ppm. Any hydrogen leak from 1 ppm to 2400 ppm can be
sensed easily by using the hydrogen leak detector.

3.2.2 Ventilation

Hydrogen has having the highest diffusivity characteristics, which

is about 3-8 times faster diffusivity in air. Any hydrogen leakage will results
in quicker dispersion in air compared to that of hydrocarbon dispersion.
Hence it will not form any cloud of hydrogen vapour in the working space (Yi
H.S. et al 2003). Blowers were also made available to disperse the hydrogen
gas it is present in the environment in case and proper ventilation is always
provided during engine running condition. The hydrogen cylinders were also
stored away from the working environment.

3.2.3 Positive Crankcase Ventilation

The crankcase for the hydrogen-operated engine is properly

ventilated to avoid ignition from taking place inside the crankcase due to
hydrogen blow by. The clouds of gases collected in the crankcase are
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removed from the rocker arm holes and are vented in to the atmosphere. The
hydrogen present in the rocker arm assembly is found to be around 40-80 ppm
during hydrogen operation (Verhelst et al 2001).

3.2.4. Flame Arrestor

Flame arrestor is used for suppressing explosion inside a hydrogen

containing system. The flame arrestor consists of a tank partly filled with
water with a fine wire mesh to prevent the flame penetration beyond the wire
mesh. The flame also gets quenched while reaching the water surface in case
of any backfire. However, the design of reliable flame arrestor is difficult,
since the quenching distance (space between the parallel walls for permitting
a flame to pass) is 1/4th of other fuels. As the pressure increases the quenching
distance also increases. Hence the flame arrestor design is difficult for
hydrogen fuel, however it is found that the use of sintered bronze as material
for the flame arrestor works satisfactorily (Neelis et al 2004). For safety
precaution a bursting diaphragm is also provided which can with stand up to a
pressure of 13-15 bars during backfire conditions.

3.2.5. Non Return Valve

Installation of non-return line in the line is used to prevent the

reverse flow of hydrogen into the system. Such a possibility of reverse flow
can occur sometimes in hydrogen – injected engine, particularly in the later
part of injection duration.

3.2.6 Flow Indicator

Flow indicator is used to see the flow of hydrogen during the

engine running conditions. As the hydrogen is allowed to pass through glass
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tube containing water, bubbles are formed during hydrogen flow, which
clearly shows the flow of hydrogen.

3.3 INJECTOR / ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT

3.3.1 Hydrogen Injector

The hydrogen injector works on the principle of solenoid, which

receives a constant power supply from a 12 V battery. The technical
specifications of the hydrogen injector are given in Table 3.1. The hydrogen
injector is calibrated with span gas of hydrogen. For port fuel injection the
hydrogen injector is placed on the cylinder head at a distance of 10 mm from
the valve seat position and placed perpendicular to the axis of the intake
valve. Figure 3.7 shows the photographic view of the hydrogen injector
position on the cylinder head.

Hydrogen
injector

Inlet
valve

Exhaust
valve

Figure 3.7 Photographic view of the hydrogen injector position on the

cylinder head
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Table 3.1 Hydrogen fuel injector specifications

Make Quantum technologies

Supply Voltage 8 – 16 Volts
Peak Current 4 Amps
Holding Current 1 Amp
Flow Capacity 0.8 g /s @ 483-552 kPa
Working Pressure 103 – 552 kPa

For manifold injection the injector is placed on the intake manifold

at a distance of 100 mm from the valve seat position and positioned at an
angle of 45 º to the axis of the intake valve in such a way that hydrogen can
mix easily with air during suction. Figure 3.8 shows the photographic view of
the hydrogen injector position on the intake manifold. The cross sectional
view of the hydrogen injector is shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.8 Photographic view of the hydrogen injector position on the

intake manifold
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Spring

Armature

Flow annulus

Figure 3.9 Cross sectional view of the hydrogen injector

3.3.2 DEE Pump

For the precise supply of DEE at a high pressure, a rotary pump

used for gasoline applications is used to pump DEE at a pressure of 15 bars.
The delivery line of the DEE fuel pump is connected to the DEE flow line and
the return fuel from the DEE pressure line after injection is connected to the
return unit of the fuel pump. The pump is housed in a 10-litre fuel tank, which
is perfectly sealed to avoid DEE evaporation. For filling the fuel in the DEE
tank, an additional fuel tank is provided at the top through which the DEE is
admitted based on the requirement. The photographic view of the DEE pump
is shown in Figure 3.10.
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Figure 3.10 Photographic view of the DEE pump

3.3.3 Electronic Control Unit

The Electronic Control Unit (ECU) used has two circuits, one for
the start of injection and another one for controlling the injection duration.
The ECU gets an input signal from the infrared (I.R.) sensor at 10 Before
Gas exchange Top Dead Center (BGTDC). Based on the preset timings for
start of injection and injection duration the ECU gives signal for opening and
closing of hydrogen and DEE injectors. The hydrogen injection is started at 5
BGTDC since it is the inlet valve opening timing and increased incrementally
in steps of 5 to up to 25 After Gas exchange Top Dead Center (AGTDC).
The injection duration adopted is 30, 60, and 90. Further increase in
injection duration is limited by the maximum holding time of the hydrogen
injector is 10 ms (91). Table 3.2 shows the different timings for start of
injection, injection duration for hydrogen and DEE operation.
Figure 3.11 shows the photographic view of the ECU. Figure 3.12 shows the
triggering circuit for controlling the start of injection, injection duration for
the hydrogen and DEE injector.
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Table 3.2 Different timings for start of injection, injection duration for
hydrogen and DEE operation

Start of Injection Injection Duration

S.No. Crank angle Time Crank angle Time
(Degrees) (ms) (Degrees) (ms)
1 5 BGTDC 0.555 30 3.330
2 GTDC 1.110 60 6.660
3 5 AGTDC 1.665 90 9.990
4 10 AGTDC 2.220 - -
5 15 AGTDC 2.775 - -
6 20 AGTDC 3.330 - -
7 25 AGTDC 3.885 - -

Figure 3.11 Photographic view of the ECU

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Figure 3.12 Triggering circuit for the ECU

3.3.4 Optical Pickup Sensor

An optical pickup sensor is used to give a voltage pulse exactly

when the pointer interrupts the infrared signal. This sensor consists of an
infrared diode and a phototransistor. A pointer is fixed on the disc, which is
aligned on the crankshaft. When the engine runs the pointer interrupts the
infrared signal delivered by the phototransistor. The infrared light reflected
due to interference is observed by the infrared diode. The infrared diode gives
a voltage signal to the ECU, which is an indication of the position of
crankshaft. The pointer is fixed on the disc at 10 BGTDC. The photographic
view of the infrared sensor is shown in Figure 3.13.
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Figure 3.13 Photographic view of the Infra red sensor

3.3.5 Cylinder Pressure Measurement

The engine cylinder pressure is measured using a water-cooled

kistler piezo electric pressure sensor, which has a sensitivity of 15.2 pC/bar.
The charge output of the pressure transducer is amplified by using a kistler
charge amplifier. The amplified signals were correlated with the signal from
crank angle encoder and the data were stored on a personal computer for
analysis. Figure 3.14 shows the photographic view of the data acquisition
system.
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Figure 3.14 Photographic view of the data acquisition system

3.4 EMISSION MEASUREMENTS

3.4.1 HC, CO, CO2 Measurements

Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and unburned hydrocarbon are

measured using a Qrotech Non-Dispersive Infra Red (NDIR) exhaust gas
analyser. The analyser is based on the principle of selective absorption of the
infrared energy of a particular wavelength peculiar to a certain gas, which will
be absorbed by that gas. Figure 3.15 shows the photographic view of the
analyser and the data acquisition system.
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Figure 3.15 Photographic view of the emission measuring instruments

3.4.2 Smoke Measurement

Smoke emissions were measured using a Bosch type smoke meter.

Gas samples were trapped on a filter paper for 30 seconds and the filtered
smoke is evaluated by using a photocell reflector, which gives a smoke value
from 0 to 10. The value 0 indicates the absence of smoke and 10 indicates the
full smoke value. The value intermediate from 0 to 10 indicates the
proportionate concentration of smoke. Figure 3.16 shows the photographic
view of the smoke measurement instrument
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Figure 3.16 Photographic view of the smoke measurement instrument

3.4.3 NOx Measurement

NO constitutes about 90 % of the total oxides of nitrogen. The

exhaust gas sample is passed through a glass bottle to remove the moisture
before it is analyzed. The NOx emission is measured by using Qrotech
exhaust gas analyzer.

3.5 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURE

Experiments were conducted by adopting the following techniques

to study the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of the
hydrogen operated engine:

1. Optimization of operating parameters such as start of

injection and injection duration and flow parameter such as
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hydrogen flow for hydrogen diesel dual fuel operation in

port and manifold injection based on the fuel efficiency and
knock free combustion and reduced emissions.

2. Adaptation of varied EGR flow rate with the above

optimized parameters for port and manifold injection.

3. Use of DEE as an ignition source for hydrogen with the

optimized parameters with port injection.

The following steps were followed to operate the engine with

hydrogen fuel.

1. The pressure of hydrogen from the tank was reduced to

3-4 bars by using a double stage hydrogen pressure
regulator.

2. The hydrogen was then passed through a control valve and a

digital mass flow controller.

3. The metered hydrogen was allowed to pass through the

safety devices such as flame arrestor, flame indicator and
non-return valve.

4. The engine was started with diesel fuel, and then hydrogen
was admitted progressively in such a way that the engine
speed is always maintained constant at 1500 rpm.

5. The hydrogen injection timing was optimized in both port

and manifold injection by varying the start of injection and
injection duration.
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6. The hydrogen flow rate was optimized with regard to its

performance and emission characteristics with optimized
start of injection and injection duration.

7. EGR flow rate was varied in the above techniques at

optimized conditions from 5 % to 25 % to obtain the overall
optimised conditions.

8. DEE as an ignition source with optimized port injection

conditions to study the performance and emission
characteristics.