Chapter No.

01

Medical Laboratory Sciences

Presented By:

Department of Medical Laboratory Technology

Qarshi University Lahore

Contents
• Introduction MLSs Vs Medical
Lab.
• History
Assistant
• Medical Lab. Scientist
 /Technologist (MLSs) • Departments of
• Responsibilities of MLSs Medical
Laboratory Sciences
• Working Areas of MLSs
• Laboratory
• Role of Medical Laboratories
Organization
in Health Care System
• Structure of
• MLSs Vs Medical Medical
Lab.
Laboratory Services
• Role of Medical
Laboratory
Services
Technician
1. Introduction
Medical Laboratory Science combines the use of sophisticated instruments and
techniques with the application of theoretical knowledge to perform complex
procedures on tissue specimens, blood samples and other body fluids. In the era
of modern technology, health care delivery system involves so many different
personnel and specialists who have working knowledge of other professional
endeavors, including the role of diagnostic evaluation.
Basically, laboratory and diagnostic tests are tools, but not
therapeutics. In conjunction with previous history and physical examination,
these tests can confirm a diagnosis or provide valuable information about a
patient status and response to therapy. Laboratory findings are also essential for
epidemiological surveillance and research. If the entire network of a laboratory
service is to be effectively utilized and contribute to health care and disease
prevention, every member of its work force needs to:
• Understand the role of the laboratory and its contribution to
the nation’s health service
• Appreciate the need to involve all members in the provision
of health service
• Follow professional ethics and code of conduct

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 • Experience job satisfaction and have professional loyalty.
Medical laboratory science is a complex field including a number of disciplines
such as:
• Microbiology
• Hematology
• Clinical Chemistry
• Urinalysis
• Immunology
• Serology
• Histopathology
• Virology
Introduction to Medical Laboratory Technology is a basic course that equips the
student with the most essential knowledge and skill pertaining to medical
laboratories such as:
• Importance of laboratory services
• Role of medical laboratory technologist
• Use of laboratory wares, instruments and sterilization
techniques
• Prevention and control of laboratory accidents
• Institution of quality control system
2. History
It is difficult to exactly say when and where medial laboratory science was
started. However, some early historical references have shown that there was
examination of body fluid around the era of Hippocrates. The most important
event that contributes for the development of the profession was the discovery
of microscope by a German scientist Antony Van Leoun Hook. Early laboratory
practitioners were physicians, pathologists or both. But sooner medical
laboratory profession was developed into a separate discipline having its own
educational requirements and standards.

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Italians were the first to establish health laboratory during the Second World
War. After independence, British Scientists took over health laboratory and
organized the laboratory. After short period of time, they handed over the
organization to the French team on contractual basis. French team developed the
first well organized laboratory between 1955 and 1964. They established
facilities for the production of vaccines and some diagnostic activities.
Developing of rabies vaccine was the main research area for the team.

3. Medical Laboratory Technologist (MLTs)/Scientist (MLSs)

MLTs/MLSs are health professionals who are responsible for performing
laboratory analysis and provides information to physicians for screening,
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease. However, after attaining special
training or practical experience or certification as medical laboratory
technology, it is further classified as:
✓ Hematology Technologist
✓ Histotechnologist
✓ Cytotechnologist
✓ Chemical Technologist
✓ Blood Bank Technologist
✓ Molecular Technologist
✓ Forensic Technologist
Medical laboratory scientists perform complex tests using sophisticated
equipment's that plays an important role in identifying the medical conditions. It
is estimated that 60 to 70 percent of all decisions regarding a patient's diagnosis,
treatment, hospital admission, and discharge are based on the results of the tests
medical laboratory scientists perform.

4. Responsibilities of MLSs
Medical laboratory scientists have a wide variety of responsibilities and duties,
including:

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 • Examining and analyzing blood, body fluids, tissues, and
cells
• Relaying test results to physicians
• Utilizing microscopes, cell counters, and other high-
precision lab equipment
• Cross matching blood for transfusion
• Monitoring patient outcomes
• Performing differential cell counts looking for abnormal
cells to aid in the diagnosis of anemia and leukemia
• Establishing quality assurance programs to monitor and
ensure the accuracy of test results
• Overseeing the work of a medical laboratory technician
5. Working Areas of MLSs
Medical lab scientists work in hospitals, clinics, forensic or public health
laboratories, as well as pharmaceutical industries, biotechnology companies,
veterinary clinics, or research institutions. Depending on the setting, their work
hours may vary; but typically, labs are run 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
This allows for flexibility in scheduling. Medical laboratory scientists spend the
majority of their time on their feet, analyzing test results in the lab.

6. Role of Medical Laboratories in Health Care Systems

• Clinical laboratory science plays an important role in
improving the quality, efficacy, cost-effectiveness, planning and
management of disease.
• Increasing the accuracy of disease diagnosis.
• Treating patients and monitoring the response of treatment.
• Monitoring the development and spread of infectious and
dangerous pathogens (disease causing agents).
• Identify the source of disease.
• Identify the resistance to microbes.
• Provides best possible care to patients.

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 • Deciding health priorities and allocating resources.
7. MLSs Vs Medical Lab. Technician
They both work in the lab. and perform tests on biological samples, however, a
medical lab. scientist typically has more education and is able to perform more
work within lab. A medical lab. technician performs more of the routine lab
work and is often supervised by a medical lab.
scientist.

8. MLSs Vs Medical Lab. Assistant

A medical laboratory assistant is a subgroup of medical laboratory technician.
They are responsible for preparing biological specimens, recording information,
and perform more of the lab maintenance tasks such as cleaning equipment and
stocking supplies. A medical laboratory scientist will work with a medical
laboratory assistant by analyzing their prepared specimens and relaying
information to them for record maintaining.

9. Departments of Medical Lab. Sciences

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9.1 Microbiology
Culturing of clinical specimens including feces, urine, blood, sputum,
cerebrospinal fluid, and synovial fluid, as well as possible infected tissues to
look for suspected pathogens. This encompasses several different sciences
including bacteriology, virology, parasitology, immunology, and mycology.
9.2 Hematology
This area includes automated and manual analysis of blood cells. It analyzes
whole blood specimens to perform full blood counts, examining the blood films
as well as counts blood cells on various body fluids.
9.3 Clinical Chemistry
In this department, dozens of different tests performed on serum or plasma.
These tests, mostly automated, includes quantitative testing for a wide array of
substances, such as lipids, blood sugar, enzymes, and hormones.
9.4 Urinalysis
In this department, urine is tested by using various analytical instruments,
including microscope. If more precise quantification of urine chemicals is
required, the specimen is processed in the clinical biochemistry lab.
9.5 Immunology/Serology
This department uses the process of antigen-antibody interaction as a diagnostic
tool. In this, the production of antigen/antibody or their quantity is determined.
Compatibility of transplanted organs may also be determined with these
methods.
9.6 Histopathology
This department includes the study as well as diagnosis of diseases using
various tissues. It processes solid tissue that are removed from the body
(biopsies) for evaluation at the microscopic level.

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10. Laboratory Organization
Organization is a system or an orderly structure, putting things together into a
working order, and making arrangements for activities that involve team work.
The organization enable peoples working together and achieving common
objectives in an efficient, planned and economic manner. In a medical
laboratory, there are at least two interlocking components of the organization
either, head of the laboratory and other staff having their own duties and
responsibilities.

11. Structure of Medical Laboratory Services

A laboratory service network consists of:
11.1 Primary Health Care Laboratory
11.2 District Hospital Laboratory
11.3 Regional Hospital Laboratory
11.4 Central/Public Health
Laboratory
11.1 Primary Health Care Laboratory
Duties:
• To support primary health care in investigating, controlling
and preventing major diseases in the country.
• Promoting health care by integrated health education
Main activities are to:
• Investigate by referral or testing on site, important diseases
and health problems affecting the local community.
• Investigations usually include bacterial diseases, parasitic
diseases and other causes of illness.

• Assist health care worker in deciding the severity of a

patient’s conditions.
• Collect and refer specimens for testing to the district
laboratory.

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 • Notify the district hospital at an early stage of any laboratory
results of public health importance and send specimens for confirmatory
tests.
• Screen pregnant women for anemia, proteinuria, malaria, and
refer serum for antibody testing.
• Promote health cares and assists in community health
education.
• Keep records, which can be used by health authorities in
health planning and for epidemiological purposes.
• Keep an inventory of stocks and order supplies.
• Send an informative monthly report to the district hospital
laboratory.
11.2 District Hospital Laboratory
Duties:
In addition to the works stated above, these laboratories have an important role
in supervising the work of the peripheral community-based laboratories, testing
referred specimens, and performing a range of tests compatible with the work of
district hospital.

Main activities are to:

• Perform a range of tests relevant to the medical, surgical, and
public health activities of the district hospital.
• Support the work of the community-based laboratories by
testing referred specimens, providing reagents, controls, standards,
specimen containers, and other essential laboratory supplies.
• Visit each primary health care laboratory in their area to
inspect and discuss the investigations being performed and, comment on
their quality assurance system, record keeping, safety procedures, as well
as the status of equipment maintenance.
• Refer specimens to the regional laboratory for tests that
cannot be performed in district laboratory.

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 • Notify the regional laboratory of any result of public health
importance and to send specimens for confirmatory tests.
• Participate in the external quality assurance program
organized by the regional laboratory.
• Prepare and send periodical reports to the regional
laboratory.

11.3 Regional Hospital Laboratory

Duties:
In addition to the duties done at the two above lower levels, the regional
laboratory assists and supervises the district laboratories. It analyses referred
specimens and performs a range of specialized and other tests as required by the
work of the regional hospital.
Main activities are to:
• Operate a regional blood transfusion center.
• Prepare reagents, controls, standard solutions and others as
found necessary.
• Investigate epidemics and perform tests of public health
importance in the region.
• Supervise and support the work of district laboratories.
• Send specimens that require special investigation to the
central and public health laboratory.
• Prepare periodical reports and send to the central and public
health laboratory.

11.4 Central/Public Health Laboratory

Duties:
The central and public health laboratory is responsible for planning, advising
and overall coordinating of medical laboratory services in the region.
Main activities are to:

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 • Formulate a professional code of conduct to medical
laboratory personnel.
• Perform a range of special tests not normally undertaken in
the regional laboratories such as viral, histopathological, cytological,
immunological, forensic and genetic investigations.
• Carry out appropriate research of importance in order to
mitigate public health problems.
• Evaluate new technologies and standardize techniques.
• Purchase supplies and equipment’s for the national
laboratory service and organize an efficient system of requisition,
distribution, and maintenance of equipment.
• Communicate and collaborate with International
Organizations in promoting laboratory standards.
• Organize laboratory-teaching seminars and prepare training
manuals for the different laboratory-training programs.
• Support the work of the regional hospital laboratories.
• Organize refreshment training and seminars/ workshops for
district and primary health care laboratory personnel.
• Prepare training manuals for the different laboratory training
programs.
• Participate in the prompt laboratory investigation of
epidemics and outbreaks of serious illness among communities.

12. Role of Medical Laboratory Services

• The medical laboratory services play a vital role in the
promotion, curative and preventive aspects of a nation’s health delivery
system.
• The service gives a scientific foundation by providing
accurate information to those with the responsibility for:
✓ Treating patients and monitoring their response to
treatment.

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 ✓ Monitoring the development and spread of infectious
and dangerous pathogens (disease causing organisms).
✓ Deciding effective control measures against major
prevalent disease.
✓ Deciding health priorities and allocating resources.
• Without reliable laboratory services:
✓ The source of a disease may not be identified
correctly.
✓ Patients are less likely to receive the best possible
care.
✓ Resistance to essential drugs may develop and
continue to spread.
✓ Epidemic diseases may not be identified on time and
with confidence.

Chapter No. 02

Laboratory its Rules, Ethics, Code of Conduct and Policies

Presented By:

Dr Hafiz Misbah Uddin

Pharm.D, M.Phil. (Pharmaceutics)
Composed by; Nimra Rabail

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 Department of Medical Laboratory Technology
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,
Pakistan

Contents

• Introduction • Professional Code of Conduct

& Ethics
• Classification of Medical
Laboratory • Laboratory Policies
• Rules of Medical Laboratory

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1. Introduction
Laboratory is a place that is equipped with different instruments,
equipment’s and chemicals (reagents) etc., for performing experimental works,
research activities and investigative procedures. Medical laboratory is one part
of the laboratory that is equipped with various biomedical instruments,
equipment’s, materials and reagents (chemicals) for performing different
laboratory investigative activities by using biological specimens (whole blood,
serum, plasma, urine, stool, etc).

2. Classification of Medical Laboratories

The world Health Organization (WHO) lists four kinds of levels of
laboratories based on their biosafety.
❖ Basic Laboratory Level-I
❖ Basic Laboratory Level-II
❖ Containment Laboratory Level-III
❖ Maximum Containment Laboratory
2.1 Basic Laboratory Level-I
Basic laboratory level I is the simplest kind and adequate for work with
organisms. These organisms have low risk to the individual laboratory
personnel as well as to the members of the community. Such organisms are
categorized under Risk Group I by WHO. These organisms are unlikely to
cause human diseases. Example, food spoilage bacteria, common molds and
yeasts.

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2.2 Basic Laboratory Level-II
Basic laboratory level II is suitable for work with organisms that predispose
to moderate risk to the laboratory worker and a limited risk to the members of
the community. Such organisms are categorized under Risk Group II by WHO.
They can cause serious human diseases but not serious hazards due to the
availability of effective preventive measures and treatment. Example,
Staphylococci, Streptococci, Entero-bacteria except Salmonella typhi and
others. Such laboratory should be clean, provide enough space, have adequate
sanitary facilities and equipped with autoclave.
2.3 Containment Laboratory Level-III
Containment laboratory is more advanced and it is used for work with
infectious organisms that present a high risk to the laboratory personnel but a
lower risk to the community. Such organisms are categorized under Risk
Group III by WHO. Example, Tubercle bacilli, Salmonella typhi, HIV, Yersina
and others. The principle is to remove from the basic laboratory those organisms
and activities which are particularly hazardous. They are easily transmitted
through airborne, ingestion of contaminated food or water and parenterally.
Such laboratory should be a separate room with controlled access by authorized
staff. It should also be fitted with microbial safety cabinet.
2.4 Maximum Containment Laboratory
Maximum containment laboratory is intended for work with viruses, which
predispose to a high risk for both laboratory personnel and the community. Such
organisms are categorized under Risk Group IV by WHO. Example, Small pox,
Ebola, Lassa fever and others. Most of these organisms cause serious disease
and readily transmitted from one person to another.
These laboratories are usually a separate building with strictly controlled access.

3. Rules of Medical Laboratory

Rules for medical laboratories can be categorized as follows:
➢ Medical Laboratory Request Form

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 ➢ Laboratory Record Keeping
➢ Delivery of Laboratory Results
3.1 Medical Laboratory Request Form
Many different types of laboratories requests are received daily in a medical
laboratory. The format of laboratory requisitions may vary from one health
institution to the other. In many health institutions, the test request form serves
as a test result report form. An efficient laboratory will be able to monitor the
laboratory request and its requisition forms from the time the specimens arrive
until the time that results are released. Laboratory request form should be made
in writing and provides necessary information. The following information on
request form are:
• The patient’s identification (full name, age, sex, address).
• Inpatient or outpatient identification number.
• Specific test(s) required and date requested.
• Type of specimen provided.
• Name of medical officer requesting the test and to whom the
report should be sent.
• Any other information relevant to the test requested.
3.2 Laboratory Record Keeping
The laboratory must keep a record of all results. It should contain:
• Patient’s identification (name, age, sex, full address).
• Type of the specimen.
• Type of test done.
•Date and result of the test.
A record of a test results must be kept by the laboratory as carbon copies,
work sheets, or recording test results in registers. Whichever system is used, it
must enable patient results to be found quickly. Records of tests and results are
required in the laboratory to issue copies to patients who have lost their results.
Moreover, they are also required when preparing duty reports and estimating the
workload of the laboratory.

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3.3 Delivery of Laboratory Results
Laboratory staff should provide as much relevant information as possible to
assist those requesting tests. Reports should be clearly and neatly written,
particularly figures. Standardization in the presentation of reports and use of
units is important because it helps in the interpretation and comparison of
results, contributes to the efficiency of a laboratory service, and is of great value
when patients are referred from one health unit or hospital to another. Therefore,
to ensure the validity and accuracy of test results, the following points should be
taken into consideration.
• Experienced member of medical laboratory professional
must check all laboratory results before dispatching them to respective
departments or units.
• Any unexpected result should be investigated and repeated if
necessary.
• If possible, reference values (normal ranges) should be
included in reports.
4. Professional Code of Conduct and Ethics
The code includes those attitudes and practices which characterize a
responsible medical laboratory technician and ensure that a person works up to
the level of a recognized standard.
Major codes of professional conduct are enumerated below:
➢ Place the well - being and service of the sick above your own
interests.
➢ Be loyal to your medical laboratory profession by
maintaining high standards of work and by improving your professional
skills and knowledge.
➢ Work scientifically and with complete honesty.
➢ Do not misuse your professional skills or knowledge for
personal gain.
➢ Never take anything from your place of work that does not
belong to you.

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 ➢ Do not disclose to a patient or any unauthorized person the
results of your investigation.
➢ Treat your results and your patient’s information with strict
confidentiality. ➢ Respect colleagues and work in harmony.

➢ Be sympathetic and considerate to the sick and their

relatives.
➢ Promote health care and the prevention and control of
disease.
➢ Follow safety precautions and know how to apply first aid.
➢ Use equipment and laboratory wares correctly and with care.
➢ Do not consume alcohol or any other abusive substances
during working hours or when on emergency standby.
➢ Do not waste reagents or other laboratory supplies.

5. Laboratory Policies
Laboratory policies are those decisions, which are taken in consultation
with other medical staff to enable a laboratory to operate reliably and effectively
in harmony with other departments.
5.1 Laboratory Hours and Emergency Work
• There should be definite laboratory working hours.
• In peripheral laboratories, it is often more difficult to
maintain working hours.
• This is because of large outpatient flow and the emergency
nature of much of the work.
• Outside of normal working hours, each laboratory should
organize a system for testing urgent specimens.
• Only those investigations that are essential for the immediate
care and assessment of a patient should be requested urgently.
5.2 Range of Test to be Performed
• Range of test to be performed depend on:
✓ The number of staff available.
✓ The availability of material resources.

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 ✓ The types of health institutions (hospital or health
center).
• Referral of specimens (when necessary). Example,
specimens for HIV detection and water samples for bacteriological
analysis.
5.3 Collection of Laboratory Specimens
• Many different types of specimens are received daily in a
laboratory and it is necessary to ensure that specimens collected
appropriately.
• The specimen containers should be clearly labeled with the
patient’s name, identification number, date and time of collection.
• A fully completed, request form should accompany each
specimen with the detail.
• Specimens received in a laboratory should fulfill the
following requirements.
✓ The specimen containers must be clean and leak proof
and also sterile when necessary.
✓ Special collecting trays or boxes must be used and
they must able to with stand repeated autoclaving or disinfection.
✓ Request forms should be kept separate from the
specimens to prevent contamination.
✓ Enough amount of specimen should be collected to
perform laboratory test(s).
5.4 Workload Capacity of Laboratory
• Workload capacity should be matched to the number of staff
and their level of training, the size of the laboratory and the availability of
laboratory facilities.
• Ideally, microscopic work (which is universal to all level of
laboratories) per day should not exceed a total of four hours.

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 • When the amount of work requested is beyond the
capabilities of a laboratory, testing of specimens become unreliable and
safety measure tend to be ignored.
• On the other hand, too little work can also lead to unreliable
test results due to lack of concentration.

Chapter No. 03

Laboratory Safety and Guidelines

Presented By:
Dr Hafiz Misbah Uddin
Pharm.D, R.ph M.Phil.Ph.D (Scholar)

Composed by; Nimra Rabail

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 Department of Medical Laboratory Technology
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,
Pakistan

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1. Laboratory
Laboratory is a place that is equipped with different instruments,
equipment’s and chemicals (reagents) etc., for performing experimental works,
research activities and investigative procedures. Medical laboratory is one part
of the laboratory that is equipped with various biomedical instruments,
equipment’s, materials and reagents (chemicals) for performing different
laboratory investigative activities by using biological specimens (whole blood,
serum, plasma, urine, stool, etc).

2. Laboratory Safety Rules

A laboratory should be planned not only for efficient work but also designed
with a view to eliminate accidents. Procedures and Rules are formulated for
three reasons:
▪ To avoid health risks and accidents for our personnel.
▪ To be in a position to act appropriately in case of
emergencies.
▪ To minimize the environmental burden and risks caused by
our work.
The following are rules that relate to almost every laboratory and
should be included in most safety policies that are:
➢ Be sure to read all fire alarm and safety signs and follow the
instructions in the event of an accident or emergency.
➢ Ensure you are fully aware of your facility's/building's
evacuation procedures.
➢ Make sure you know where your lab's safety equipment
including first aid kit, fire extinguishers, eye wash stations, and safety
showers is located and how to properly use it.

➢ Know emergency phone numbers to use to call for help in

case of an emergency.

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 ➢ Lab areas containing carcinogens, radioisotopes, biohazards,
and lasers should be properly marked with the appropriate warning signs.
➢ Open flames should never be used in the laboratory unless
you have permission from a qualified supervisor.
➢ Always work in properly-ventilated areas.
➢ Do not chew gum, drink, or eat while working in the lab.
➢ Laboratory glassware should never be utilized as food or
beverage containers.
➢ Each time you use glassware, be sure to check it for chips
and cracks.
➢ Notify your lab supervisor of any damaged glassware so it
can be properly disposed of.
➢ Never use lab equipment that you are not approved or trained
by your supervisor to operate.

➢ Do not work alone in the lab.

➢ If an instrument or piece of equipment fails during use, or
isn't operating properly, report the issue to a technician right away. Never
try to repair an equipment problem on your own.
➢ Never lift any glassware, solutions, or other types of
apparatus above eye level.
➢ If you are the last person to leave the lab, make sure to lock
all the doors and turn off all ignition sources.

➢ Never smell or taste chemicals.

➢ Make sure you always follow the proper procedures for
disposing lab waste.
➢ Do not pipette by mouth.
➢ Report all injuries, accidents, and broken equipment or glass
right away, even if the incident seems small or unimportant.
➢ Adequate floor, bench and storage space for staff to work
safely.

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 ➢ In the event of a chemical splashing into your eye(s) or on
your skin, immediately flush the affected area(s) with running water for at
least 20 minutes.
➢ Discard containers that contain infectious microorganisms
after each use.
➢ Bench surfaces should be without cracks, washable and
resistant to the disinfectants and chemicals used in the laboratory.
➢ All staff must ensure that the conditions of their work do not
create any hazard for those working nearby.

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3. Types of Laboratory Safety Guidelines
In laboratories different types of guidelines are used at different steps or
different procedures. Some most commonly types are:
❖ House Keeping Safety Guidelines.
❖ Dress Code Safety Guidelines.
❖ Personal Safety Guidelines.
❖ Chemical Safety Guidelines.
❖ Electrical Safety Guidelines.
❖ Laser Safety Guidelines.

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 House Keeping Dress Code Personal Safety

Chemical Safety Electrical Safety Laser Safety

3.1 House Keeping Safety Guidelines

Laboratory housekeeping rules also apply to most facilities and deal with the
basic upkeep, and maintenance of a safe laboratory.
• Always keep your work area(s) tidy and clean.
• Only materials you require for your work should be kept in
your work area.
• Make sure that all eye wash stations, emergency showers,
fire extinguishers, and exits are always unobstructed and accessible.
• Only lightweight items should be stored on top of cabinets;
heavier items should always be kept at the bottom.
• Any equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to
prevent overheating should always be kept clear.
3.2 Dress Code Safety Guidelines
Following are the safety guidelines associated with dress code that are:
• Always tie back hair that is chin-length or longer.
• Make sure that loose clothing or dangling jewelry is secured,
or avoid wearing it in the place of work.
• Never wear sandals or other open-toed shoes in the lab.
Footwear should always cover the foot completely.

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 • Never wear shorts or skirts in the lab.
• When working with Bunsen burners, matches, etc., acrylic
nails are not allowed.
3.3 Personal Safety Guidelines
The basic hygiene rules to avoid any sort of contamination includes:
• When working with equipment, hazardous materials,
glassware, heat, and/or chemicals, always wear face shields or safety
glasses.
• When handling any toxic or hazardous agent, always wear
the appropriate gloves.
• When performing laboratory experiments, you should always
wear a lab coat.
• Before leaving the lab or eating, always wash your hands
with water or soap.
• When using lab equipment and chemicals, be sure to keep
your hands away from your body, mouth, eyes, and face.
•

3.4 Chemical Safety Guidelines

These rules also set a clear procedure for employees to follow in the event
that a spill does occur, in order to ensure it is cleaned up properly and injuries
are avoided.

• Every chemical should be treated as though it were

dangerous.
• Do not allow any solvent to come into contact with your
skin.
• All chemicals should always be clearly labeled with the
name of the substance, its concentration, the date it was received, and the
name of the person responsible for it.
• Never take more chemicals from a bottle than you need for
your work.
• Do not put unused chemicals back into their original
container.

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 • Flammable and volatile chemicals should only be used in a
fume hood.
• If a chemical spill occurs, clean it up right away.
• Ensure that all chemical waste is disposed of properly.
3.5 Electrical Safety Guidelines
Electrical safety rules help prevent the misuse of electronic instruments,
electric shocks and other injuries, and ensure that any damaged equipment or
plugs are reported. The Following guidelines related to electrical safety are:
• Before using any high voltage equipment (voltages above
50V ac and 50V dc), make sure you get permission from your lab
supervisor.
• High voltage equipment should never be changed or
modified in any way.
• Always turn off a high voltage power supply when you are
attaching it.
• Use only one hand if you need to adjust any high voltage
equipment. It’s safest to place your other hand either behind your back or
in a pocket.
• Make sure all electrical panels are unobstructed and easily
accessible.
• Whenever you can, avoid using extension cords.
3.6 Laser Safety Guidelines
A clear set of rules for the use of lasers is essential to ensure that everyone is
aware of all hazards and that the appropriate personal protective equipment is
worn at all times.
• Even if you are certain that a laser beam is "eye" safe or low
power, you should never look into it.
• Always wear the appropriate goggles in areas of the lab
where lasers are present.

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 • The most common laser injuries are those caused by
scattered laser light reflecting either off the shiny surface of optical tables,
the sides of mirrors, or off of mountings.
• You should never keep your head at the same level as the
laser beam.
• Always keep the laser beam at or below chest level.
• Do not walk-through laser beams.

Chapter No. 04

Laboratory Equipments/Tools

Presented By:
Dr Hafiz Misbah Uddin
Pharm.D, R.ph M.Phil.Ph.D (Scholar)

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 Composed by ; Nimra Rabail

Department of Medical Laboratory Technology

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,
Pakistan

1. Laboratory Wares
Laboratory ware is defined as the equipment used in laboratory for
scientific work, which is made of plastic and glass. Most commonly used
laboratory wares include beakers, flasks, petri dishes, volumetric cylinders,
pipette etc.

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2. Glasswares
Glass is an inorganic mixture of metal oxides fused together at high
temperatures, which upon cooling, solidifies into the clear, rigid, non-crystalline
and versatile material known widely across the globe. Glasswares are usually
manufactured from boro-silicate glass. Borosilicate glass is a material with the
following defined characteristics:
• Resistant to the action of chemical with the exception of hydrofluoric and
phosphoric acid.
• Withstand mechanical breakage.
• Withstand sudden change of temperature.
Glassware produced from the soda lime type of glass does not fit the
above requirements and is easily broken by mechanical stress produced by a
sudden change of temperature. The high proportion of boro-silicate increases the
chemical durability of the glasswares. The walls of these vessels are generally
thicker than those made from soda lime. Hardened glasses, such as Pyrex,
monax, and firmasil have low soda-lime content and are manufactured specially
to resist thermal shock (high temperature).
2.1 Volumetric Wares
Volumetric wares are apparatus used for the measurement of liquid volume.
They can be made from either glass or plastic wares such as pipettes, volumetric
flasks, cylinders and burettes.
2.1.1 Pipettes
There are several types each having its own advantages and limitations.
Pipettes are designated as class “A” or “B” according to their accuracy.
Class “A” pipettes are the most accurate and the tolerance limits are well
defined that is, ±0.02 for 2, 25, and 50 ml pipettes respectively.
Class “B” pipettes are less accurate but quite satisfactory for most
general laboratory purposes.

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 Significant errors will result if the temperature of the liquid pipetted is
widely different from the temperature of calibration. The usual temperature of
calibration is 20ºC and this is marked on the pipette.

Fig. 4.1 Pipettes

2.1.2 Volumetric Pipettes
Volumetric pipettes are calibrated to deliver a constant volume of liquid.
The most commonly used sizes are 1, 5, and 10ml capacities. They have a bulb
mid-way between the mouthpiece and the tip. The main purpose of the bulb is to
decrease the surface area per unit volume and to diminish the possible error
resulting from water film. The Volume (capacity) and calibration temperature of
the pipettes are clearly written on the bulb. They should be used when a high
degree of accuracy is desired. The pipette is first rinsed several times with a
little of the solution to be used, then filled to just above the mark.

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 Fig. 4.2 Volumetric Pipettes
2.1.3 Micro Pipettes
Micropipettes are frequently used in medical chemistry, Virology,
immunology and serology laboratories. This is because in these laboratories
often only small quantities of materials are available for measurement. Whole
blood, serum or plasma is often measured and when such viscous fluids are used
these pipettes are convenient. They are found in different capacities such as 5,
10, 25, 50, 100 and 1000 micro liter.

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 Fig. 4.3 Micro Pipettes

2.2 Conical Flasks

Conical flasks are useful for titrations and also for boiling solutions when it
is necessary to keep evaporation to a minimum. Some have a side arm suitable
for attachment to a vacuum pump.
2.2.1 Flat Bottomed Round Flasks
Flat-bottomed round flasks are convenient containers to heat liquids. A
gauze mat should be interposed between the flask and flame. These flasks are
widely used in the preparation of bacteriological culture media.

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 Fig. 4.4 Flat Bottomed Round Flasks

2.2.2 Round Bottom Flasks

Round bottomed flasks can with stand higher temperatures than the flat-
bottomed type and they may be heated in a naked flame, or in an elector-
thermal mantle. They can be used for boiling of different kinds of solutions and
to make titration.

Fig. 4.5 Round Bottom Flasks

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2.3 Volumetric Flasks
Volumetric flasks are flat - bottomed, pear-shaped vessels with long narrow
necks, and are fitted with ground glass stoppers. Most flasks are graduated to
contain a certain volume, and these are marked with the letter ”C”. Those
designed to deliver a given volume are marked with the letter “D”. A horizontal
line etched round the neck denotes the stated volume of water at given
temperature, for example at 20ºC. They are used to prepare various kind of
solutions.

Fig. 4.6 Volumetric Flasks

2.4 Beakers
Beakers have capacities from 5 to 5,000 ml. They are usually made up of
heat resistant glass and are available in different shapes. The type most
commonly used is the squat form, which is cylindrical with or without spout.
Beakers are often supplied for heating or boiling of solutions.

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 Fig. 4.7 Beakers
2.5 Cylinders
Cylinders are supplied in 10 to 2,000 ml capacities. Some are made of heat
resistant glass or plastic and some are fitted with ground- glass stoppers.
Measurement of liquids can be made quickly with these vessels, but a high
degree of accuracy is impossible because of the wide bore of the cylinders.

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 Fig. 4.8 Cylinders

2.6 Test Tubes

Test tubes are made of hardened glass or plastic materials that can withstand
actions of chemicals, thermal shock and centrifugal strains. They are used to
hold samples and solutions, during medical laboratory procedures.

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 Fig. 4.9 Test Tubes
2.7 Petri Dishes
Petri dishes are flat glass or plastic containers, which have a number of uses
in the medical laboratory. They are used predominantly for the cultivation of
organisms on solid media. They are made with diameters of 5 to 14 centimeter.
These are used to isolate, identify and study the characteristics of
microorganisms it is essential to grow them on artificial media, and in routine
bacteriology these grow within the petri dishes.

Fig. 4.19 Petri Dish

2.8 Funnels
There are two types of funnels that are widely used in a medical laboratory.
Filter Funnel: Used for the filtration of solutions using filter paper.
Separating Funnel: Used for separating two immiscible liquids.

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 Fig. 4.11 Filter Funnel & Separating Funnel
2.9 Laboratory Cuvettes
Cuvettes can be glass cuvettes or plastic cuvettes. Glass cuvettes resist many
laboratory reagents like organic solvents, whereas plastic cuvettes are affected
by many reagents. When become cloudy it affects the absorbance of the reacting
mixture and so lack accuracy & precision. Therefore, plastic cuvettes whenever
used should be cleaned immediately. If the cuvettes turn to cloudy it should not
be used for any analytical procedures. Any scratch or white spot-on glass
cuvettes cannot be washed out with any solvent and therefore, disturbs
absorbance of a given solution. Therefore, such cuvettes should be discarded.
Glass cuvettes are the choice for photometry.

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 Fig. 4.12 Laboratory Cuvettes

2.10 Pestle and Mortar

Pestle and mortar are used for grinding solids. Those of unglazed portion
have porous surfaces, and those of heavy glass are made with roughened
surfaces. After each use always clean the pestle and mortar thoroughly to
prevent any contamination.

Fig. 4.13 Pestle and Mortar

3. Cleaning of Glasswares
It is clear that volumetric glasswares and glass apparatus must be
absolutely clean, otherwise volumes measured will be inaccurate and chemical
reactions are affected adversely. The method generally used to test for
cleanness is to fill the vessel with distilled water and then empty it. Examine the
walls to see whether they are covered by a continuous thin film of water.
Imperfect wetting or the presence of discrete of droplets water indicates that
vessel is not sufficiently clean.
Fats and grease are the most frequent causes of severe contamination present
and it is advisable to dissolve these contaminants by a liquid solvent (water-

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miscible organic solvent) followed by water washing. The most widely used
oxidant is a solution of sodium dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid.
Because of its oxidizing power, the solution, particularly when hot, removes
grease and fats quickly and completely.
Chromic-sulfuric acid mixture is the cleaning agent in common usage.
Cleaning solution, as a mixture, is not a general solvent for cleaning all
apparatus but only for cleaning boro-silicate glasswares, including volumetric
wares. Glass- ware is generally in contact with the mixture for 1 to 24 hours,
depending upon the amount of grease or liquid present. After removal of the
acid and draining, the glass ware should be washed out at least four times with
tap water and then rinsed three times with distilled water.

3.1 Cleaning of Pipettes

Pipettes should be placed in a vertical position with the tips up in a jar of
cleaning solution in order to avoid the breakage of their tips. A pad of glass
wool is placed at the bottom of the jar to prevent breakage. After soaking for
several hours, the tips are drained and rinsed with tap water until all traces of
cleaning solution are removed. The pipettes are then soaked in distilled water
for at least an hour. Filing with water, allowing the pipette to empty, and
observing whether drops formed on the side within the graduated portion make
a gross test for cleanness. Formation of drops indicates greasy surfaces. After
the final distilled water rinse the pipettes are dried in an oven at not more than
110 C.֯ Most laboratories that use large numbers of pipettes daily use a
convenient automatic pipette washer. These devices are made of metal or
polyethylene and can be connected directly to hot and cold-water supplies.
Polyethylene baskets and jars may be used for soaking and rinsing pipettes in
chromic acid cleaning solution.

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 3.2 Cleaning of Flasks, Beakers, Cylinders
Pour warm cleaning solution into each vessel and stopper or cover carefully.
Each vessel should be manipulated so that all portions of the wall are repeatedly
brought into contact with the solution. This procedure should be followed for at
least five minutes. The cleaning solution can be poured from one vessel to
another and then returned to its original container. The vessels should then be
rinsed repeatedly with tap water four times and finally rinsed three times with
distilled water. It is important that the necks of volumetric flasks above the
graduation mark be clean because, when solutions are diluted in the flask, drops
of water may adhere to an unclean wall and may invalidate the measurement of
volume.

4. Plasticwares
Plasticwares are usually manufactured from polymers of polyethylene,
polypropylene and TEFLON. These plastics are chemically inert and unaffected
by acid /alkali. Plasticwares are durable and suitable to store alkaline solutions.
However, surface bound may be leached to the solution, absorb dyes and
proteins.
4.1 Cleaning of Plasticwares
After each use Laboratory plastic wares should be immediately soaked in
water or if contaminated, soaked overnight in a suitable disinfectant such as
0.5% w/v sodium hypochlorite or bleach. Most plastic ware is best clean in a
warm detergent solution, followed by at least two rinses in clean water, and
ideally a final rinse in distilled water. The articles should then be left to drain
and dry naturally or dried in a hot air oven, set at a temperature the plastic can
withstand. A brush or harsh abrasive cleaner should not be used on plastic ware.

Stains or precipitates best removed using dilute nitric acid or 3% v/v acid
alcohol.

Chapter No. 05

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 Specimen Collection, Transport and Disposal

Presented By:
Dr.Hafiz Misbah Uddin
Pharm.D, R.ph ,M.phil,Ph.D(Scholar)

Composed by; Nimra Rabail

44 | P a g e
 n
Department of Medical Laboratory Technology

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,

Pakistan

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1. Why Specimen Collection is Important?
Specimen collection and transportation are critical considerations,
because any results the laboratory generates is limited by the quality of
specimen and its condition on arrival in the laboratory. Specimens should be
obtained properly to minimize the possibility of introducing contaminating
microorganisms that are not involved in the infectious process.

2. Containers for Specimen Collection

2.1 For Faeces:
Universal container used for specimen collection. Spoon attached to the
inside of the screw cap.

2.2 For Urine:

Universal container for small quantities. For larger quantities, 250ml wide
mouthed screwcapped bottles are convenient.

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2.3 For
Sputum:
Universal container should not be used. Wide-mouthed disposable containers
should be used.

2.4 For Blood:

Without anticoagulant for serological examinations. With EDTA for
parasitological examination. Sometimes, blood culture bottles are used that must
be larger enough to hold 50ml of liquid.

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2.5 Syringes and Needles for Aspiration
• Wound
pus
• CSF
• Pleural
effusion
• Amniotic fluid
• Synovial fluid
3. Swabs for Specimen
Collection
Swabs are suitable for taking specimens of exudates from the throat, nose,
ear, skin, wounds and other accessible lesions. These swabs consist of a sterile
pledged of absorbent material, usually cotton-wool or synthetic fiber, mounted
on a thin wire of stick. Some swabs are used for special purpose:
• Baby swabs
• Pre-nasal swabs
• Post-nasal swabs
• Laryngeal swabs
• High vaginal and cervical swabs

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4. Specimen Collection Guidelines
❖ Time of Collection
• During the acute phase of any pathological condition.
• Before starting the anti-microbial therapy.
• Should be collected at day time very first morning.
❖ Contamination
• Normal flora
❖ Specimen Containers
• Container should be clean, sterile and leak proof.
5. Labeling of Specimen Container
Each sample must have a label attached to the specimen container bearing
the following information:
✓ Name of patient
✓ Type of specimen
✓ Date and time of specimen collection
✓ Test requested
✓ Name of ordering physician

6. Specimen Transport
Many organisms are susceptible to environmental conditions, thus use of
special preservative or holding media for the transportation of specimens delay
for more than 2 hrs. It is important to ensure viability of the microorganisms.

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The non-nutritive media is used only to keep the organisms viable but not
encourage the growth. The most commonly media used for the transportation of
microbes are:
✓ Stuart’s medium
✓ Cary-Blair medium
Specimens should be in a tightly sealed containers and should be transported
in a sealable, leak-proof plastic bags.

7. Specimen Rejection Criteria

The specimen should be rejected if received incompletely. Following
rejection criteria are:
• Unlabeled or improperly labeled specimen.
• Mismatch information.
• Improper temperature.
• Improper container (non-sterile) or medium (anerobic
bacteria in
aerobic medium).
• Insufficient specimen quantity.
• Leaking container.
• Dried out swabs.
• Late specimens more than 2hrs. (not preserved).
8. Microbiological Waste Materials
8.1 Contaminated Sharps:
• Syringes with/without needles
• Glass slides
• Slide covers
• Specimen tubes
8.2 Contaminated Solids:
• Culture dishes
• Flasks
• Petri dishes
• Gloves, Gowns, Masks

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8.3 Contaminated Liquid:
• Liquid growth media
• Human body fluids i.e.,
✓ Blood and its components
✓ CSF
✓ Semen fluid
✓ Vaginal secretions
9. Specimen Disposal Methods
9.1 Incineration
• Controlled incineration at high temperature (over 1000 ºC).
• This technology is used for all types of health care waste that
can be treated properly.
• The advantage of this method is that it significantly reducing
the volume and weight of the waste treated.
•

9.2 Chemical Disinfection

Chemicals are added to the waste to kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens.
This method is mainly used for treating liquid infectious waste i.e., blood, urine
etc. 1% bleach (sodium hypochlorite) solution or 0.5% chlorine solution is used.

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9.3 Autoclaving
This method is environmentally safe but, in some cases, it requires
electricity. Due to this in some countries it is not always suitable for treating
wastes.

9.4 Needle Extraction /Needle Cutting or Destruction

Some appliances run on electricity (destroying the needles by melting). But
cannot be used in remote areas. Needles can be removed after injection by using
manually operated devices.

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9.5 Shredders
Shredders cut the waste into small pieces. They are often built into closed
chemical or thermal disinfection system. Shredding in certain circumstances
provides a mean of recycling plastics and needles.
9.6 Encapsulation
Encapsulation (solidification) involves the filling of container with waste
(sharps, chemical, incinerator ash), immobilizing material (plastic foam, lime,
cement mortar or clay). Once the medium has dried the containers are sealed
and disposed of in a sanitary landfill or waste burial pit. The purpose of
treatment is to prevent the humans and environment from any risk of contact.

10. Specimen Disposal Container

Container must be appropriate for contents, not leaky and should be
labeled properly. These maintain the integrity of specimen if chemical or
thermal treatment is used. Containers of biohazardous material should be kept
closed.
10.1 Contaminated Sharp Container

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10.2 Contaminated Solid Container

10.3 Contaminated Liquid Container

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10.4 Human Tissue Container

10.5 Biohazard Bags

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Chapter No.05

Presented By;

Dr.Hafiz Misbah Uddin

Pharm D, R.ph, M.Phil. PH.D(Scholar)

Composed By; Nimra Rabail

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,

Pakistan

Chemical Hazards and Laboratory Safety Symbols

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Chemical Hazard
“A chemical hazard is a (non-biological) substance that has the
potential to cause harm to life or health.”
Chemicals are widely used in the home and in many other places.
Exposure to chemicals can cause acute or long-term detrimental
health effects.

Routes of Chemical Exposure

There are several routes of chemical exposure as described below.
Inhalation – that is breathing in toxic vapors or small
chemical particles.
Absorption – such as direct exposure to the skin by
touching a chemical substance without any protection such
as wearing gloves.
Injection – that is when a sharp contaminated object or
needle accidentally penetrates a worker’s body (such as
hand or foot)
Ingestion – that is when toxins are accidentally swallowed
Types of Chemical Hazards in the Workplace
1. Asphyxiants
Chemical asphyxiants deprive the body of oxygen, interrupting
the transfer and use of oxygen by the bloodstream. An asphyxiant
may be a gas or vapor that can cause unconsciousness or
death by suffocation (asphyxiation). Asphyxiants with no other
health effects may be referred to as simple asphyxiants.
Examples of simple asphyxiants include:
Nitrogen,

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 argon,
helium,
methane,
propane,
carbon dioxide,
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.
2. Corrosives
Corrosives are capable of destroying solid materials, tending to
eat away or consume.
Chemical corrosives cause visible and/or irreversible changes to
the composition of a material due to direct contact. Similarly, these
can also cause a localized reaction in the human body at the point of
contact. However, corrosive chemicals also have the potential to
produce systemic chemical exposure away from the point of contact
when mixed with other substances. Examples of corrosive
chemicals include acids, oxidizers, and bases. Specific
examples include,
 Examples include :
 Glycolic acid.
 Imidazole.
 4-Methoxybenzylamine.
 Sodium hydroxide.
 Amines.
 Hydrogen peroxide.
 Nitric Acid
 Bromine.
 Hydrogen peroxide.

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 3. Irritants
Irritant is a substance that causes slight inflammation or
other discomfort to the body and that is continually annoying
or distracting.
Chemical hazards that are classified as irritants cause harm to
the eyes, skin, or respiratory tract of a person. Irritants are either
highly, moderately, or slightly water-soluble. The hazards can
manifest as redness, rashes, inflammation, coughing, or
hemorrhaging. Irritants are mostly short-term severe illnesses but can
also have long-lasting side effects in some people. People can also
have an allergic reaction to some of these chemical materials with
long-lasting health impacts or even be fatal.
Examples: Well-known examples of irritants are soaps or
detergents in cleaning products, acids and solvents.
Nickel chloride and chromic acid are also good examples.
What is the harmful of irritant?
An irritant toxic chemical causes reversible damage to skin or other
organ system, whereas a corrosive agent produces irreversible
damage, namely, visible necrosis into integumentary layers, following
application of a substance for up to 4 hours.

4. Sensitizers
A sensitizer (allergen) is a substance that causes exposed
individuals to develop an allergic reaction in normal tissue after
repeated exposure to the substance.

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 Sensitizers are also known as allergens meaning they cause an
allergic reaction in people who face repeated exposure over time to
certain chemicals. Reactions to chemicals sensitizers vary from person
to person and can be either acute or chronic. Chemical exposure can
manifest as swelling of the airway or develop into dangerous illnesses
such as lung disease. Some diseases such as asthma and contact
dermatitis become common among people due to over-exposure to
chemicals.
Examples of sensitizers include:
diazomethane, chromium, nickel, formaldehyde, isocyanates,
arylhydrazines, benzylic and allylic halides, like Chlorine, Alkalis and
many phenol derivatives.
Sensitizer exposure can lead to all of the symptoms associated with
allergic reactions, or can increase an individual's existing allergies.

5. Carcinogens
Carcinogens are cancer-causing chemical substances, and a
small amount of such a chemical is enough to severely harm human
health. The hazards of such chemical substances will only appear
many years after the exposure. There are over 200 known human
carcinogens.
Examples: Benzene, cadmium, formaldehyde, and vinyl chloride.
What are 3 examples of carcinogens?
Exposure to some chemicals and hazardous substances can increase
the risk of cancer. A few well-known carcinogens are asbestos, nickel,
cadmium, radon, benzidene.
What are 5 known carcinogens?

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 Common Carcinogens You Should Know
 Tobacco.
 Crispy,
 Brown Foods.
 Ultraviolet Rays.
 Alcohol.
 Processed Meat
 Radon
(Radon is an odorless, invisible, radioactive gas naturally released
from rocks, soil, and water. Radon can get into homes and buildings
through small cracks or holes and build up in the air. Over time,
breathing in high levels of radon can cause lung cancer.)

6. Mutagens
Chemicals classified as mutagens cause genetic changes to a
cell’s DNA and RNA. Genetic changes can cause cancer, prevent
normal biological functions, or may result in the malfunction of a
particular organ.
What are 3 types of mutagens?

Mutagens can be physical mutagens, chemical mutagens, or

biological mutagens

Examples: Benzene, ionizing radiation, and hydrogen peroxide.

Examples of mutagens include tobacco products, radioactive
substances, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation and a wide variety of
chemicals. Exposure to a mutagen can produce DNA mutations that
cause or contribute to certain diseases.

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 7. Teratogens
Chemical teratogens can disrupt the normal development of a
fetus causing birth defects and even the healthy advancement of
pregnancy. Teratogens are usually discovered after an increased
prevalence of a particular birth defect.
Teratogens can also increase the risk for miscarriage, preterm labor or
stillbirth
What are the 4 types of teratogens?
Teratogens are classified into four types:
physical agents, metabolic conditions, infection, and finally, drugs
and chemicals. The word teratogen originates from the Greek word
for monster, teratos
Is folic acid a teratogen?
Folate deficiency has a well-established teratogenic effect, leading to
an increasing risk of neural tube defects
Examples: Drugs, alcohol, chemicals and toxic substances are
examples of teratogens.
Thalidomide, ionizing radiation, and organic mercury compounds.
What are major teratogens?
Known Teratogens
 angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, such as Zestril and
Prinivil.
 alcohol.
 aminopterin.
 androgens, such as methyltestosterone (Android)
 busulfan (Myleran)
 carbamazepine (Tegretol)
 chlorobiphenyls.
 cocaine
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 8. Reactive
Chemical substances that cause a chemical hazard such as an
explosion when mixed or combined with other chemical or non-
chemical substances such as water or air.
Examples: Nitric acid, benzoyl peroxide, and silane.
What is an example of a reactive hazard?

Reactive hazards are the dangers associated with uncontrolled

chemical reactions in industrial processes. These uncontrolled
reactions - such as thermal runaways and chemical decompositions -
have been responsible for numerous fires, explosions, and toxic gas
releases
What are the hazards of reactive chemicals?
When chemical reactions are not properly managed, they can have
harmful, or even catastrophic consequences, such as toxic fumes,
fires, and explosions. These reactions may result in death and injury
to people, damage to physical property, and severe effects on the
environment
What are some examples of things that are reactive?
The halogens, alkali metals, and alkaline earth metals are highly
reactive. The most reactive element is fluorine, the first element in
the halogen group.

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 The most reactive metal is francium, the last alkali metal (and
most expensive element)

9. Flammable
Many chemicals are characterized as flammable as they can
easily burn or ignite when exposed to oxygen.
Examples: Methanol, acetone, propane, and butane.

The two primary hazards associated with flammable and combustible

liquids are explosion and fire. Flammable liquids are particularly
hazardous due to their ability to produce vapors. This vapor mixes
with air and burns quickly when the flammable liquid is heated to its
flashpoint or above and is ignited.

What is an example of flammable hazard?

Flammable: A liquid with a flash point under 100°F is considered
flammable.
Examples: gasoline, acetone, toluene, diethyl ether, alcohols.
Hazard: May produce ignitable vapors at normal ambient
temperatures.
What are 5 examples of fire hazards?
Common Fire Hazards & Their Causes

 Electrical Equipment.
 Combustible or Waste Materials.
 Hot Work Activities.
 Dust & Debris.
 Smoking.

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 Human Error or Negligence.
 Flammable Liquids.

What is an example of a flammable item?

Flammable materials are easily ignited, causing fires. They can take
the form of solid, liquid or gas. Common flammable materials found
in workplaces include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), paints,
varnishes and lacquers. If flammable materials are not managed
properly, they pose serious fire risks.

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Laboratory Safety Symbols

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